{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T11:48:32Z","timestamp":1782301712561,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766534400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009210","name":"Food and Drug Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009210","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"US National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Criminal Justice Research Center in the College of Liberal Arts"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000054","name":"National Cancer Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01CA270546"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01CA270546"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000054","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01DA054234"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01DA054234"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Among nicotine-na\u00efve youth, cognitive susceptibility (ie, intentions\/willingness to use) is a powerful predictor of initiating the use of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS). Our research objective is to examine the time-varying adolescent and family risk and protective factors that may be associated with youth susceptibility to ENDS initiation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We used hybrid panel models on longitudinal data from parents and youth aged 12\u201317 in the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health Study, followed over 7 survey waves between 2015 and 2023. Analyses included 16\u2009142 nicotine-na\u00efve youth whose ENDS susceptibility was assessed over 43\u2009427 longitudinal observations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Youth were susceptible to ENDS initiation in 25.9% of longitudinal observations. Youth were more susceptible when they believed using ENDS was safer and less addictive than smoking, when they had high weekly earnings, and when they believed ENDS were easy to buy. Youth problem behaviors and both parents\u2019 and friends\u2019 ENDS use also predicted greater odds of ENDS susceptibility. The odds of susceptibility were lower when youth resided in homes with vaping bans, when they believed their parents would be upset if they started vaping nicotine, and when they were earning good grades. Girls were more susceptible to ENDS initiation than boys.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Parents may be interested in potentially malleable factors associated with greater susceptibility, including youth drinking alcohol, believing ENDS are safer and less addictive than smoking, and having friends who use ENDS. Conversely, maintaining household vaping bans and parental disapproval of ENDS were linked with lower susceptibility.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Research consistently identifies cognitive susceptibility\u2014defined as intentions and willingness to use ENDS\u2014as a powerful predictor of ENDS initiation in adolescence. Less is known about specific risk factors that heighten nicotine-na\u00efve adolescents\u2019 willingness to vape nicotine or protective factors that may deter their intentions to initiate ENDS use. To address this gap, the present study leveraged longitudinal data to identify key adolescent and family risk factors that are associated with youth susceptibility to ENDS initiation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntaf264","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T12:46:24Z","timestamp":1766493984000},"page":"1156-1162","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Risk and Protective Factors Associated With Susceptibility to Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems Initiation in Adolescence"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0939-2250","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeremy","family":"Staff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0649-8404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica M","family":"Mongilio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for the Study of Drugs, Alcohol, Smoking, and Health, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2916-0046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mike","family":"Vuolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1601-6990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer L","family":"Maggs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University , University Park, Pennsylvania ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2039-1347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brian C","family":"Kelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Indiana University , Bloomington, Indiana ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7341a2","article-title":"Tobacco product use among middle and high school students \u2014 National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2024","volume":"73","author":"Jamal","year":"2024","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref2","volume-title":"Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2024: Overview and Key Findings for Secondary School Students","author":"Miech","year":"2024"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062407013058200_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-6133.15.5.355","article-title":"Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States","volume":"15","author":"Pierce","year":"1996","journal-title":"Health Psychol"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026062407013058200_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15808","article-title":"Can PATH study susceptibility measures predict e-cigarette and cigarette use among American youth 1 year later?","volume":"117","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntw393","article-title":"E-cigarette susceptibility as a predictor of youth initiation of e-cigarettes","volume":"20","author":"Bold","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.107676","article-title":"Risk factors associated with subsequent initiation of cigarettes and e-cigarettes in adolescence: a structural equation modeling approach","volume":"207","author":"Kintz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2019.02.006","article-title":"Is susceptibility to e-cigarettes among youth associated with tobacco and other substance use behaviors one year later? Results from the PATH study","volume":"121","author":"Nicksic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2020.105896","article-title":"Using susceptibility measures to prospectively predict ever use of electronic cigarettes among adolescents","volume":"130","author":"Seo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17226\/24952","volume-title":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Public Health Consequences of E-Cigarettes","author":"Stratton","year":"2018"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.18001\/TRS.7.1.1","article-title":"Longitudinal uses of the population assessment of tobacco and health study","volume":"7","author":"Piesse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tob Regul Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062407013058200_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntv193","article-title":"Vaping as a catalyst for smoking? An initial model on the initiation of electronic cigarette use and the transition to tobacco smoking among adolescents","volume":"18","author":"Schneider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref12","volume-title":"Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic Models","author":"Kornhauser","year":"1978"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128793039003010","volume-title":"Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life","author":"Sampson","year":"1993"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref14","volume-title":"Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach","author":"Akers","year":"1985","edition":"3rd"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2018.02.026","article-title":"Predictors of youth e-cigarette use susceptibility in a US nationally representative sample","volume":"82","author":"Kwon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2018.11.027","article-title":"Associations of risk factors of e-cigarette and cigarette use and susceptibility to use among baseline PATH study youth participants (2013\u20132014)","volume":"91","author":"Sawdey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026062407013058200_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0212353","article-title":"Perceived ease of flavored e-cigarette use and e-cigarette use progression among youth never tobacco users","volume":"14","author":"Chen-Sankey","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026062407013058200_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1177\/0890117120971121","article-title":"Adolescent susceptibility to e-cigarettes: an update from the 2018 National Youth Tobacco Survey","volume":"35","author":"Tackett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Health Promot"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164:1-7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2022.107334","article-title":"Home e-cigarette rules and youth's vulnerability to initiate and sustain e-cigarette use","author":"Buu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1177\/1536867X1701700106","article-title":"Within-and between-cluster effects in generalized linear mixed models: a discussion of approaches and the xthybrid command","volume":"17","author":"Schunck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stata J"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412993869","volume-title":"Fixed Effects Regression Models","author":"Allison","year":"2009"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref22","volume-title":"Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth","author":"Jessor","year":"1977"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref23","volume-title":"Consequences of Adolescent Drug Use","author":"Newcomb","year":"1988"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503621794","volume-title":"A General Theory of Crime","author":"Gottfredson","year":"1990"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062407013058200_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/nty067","article-title":"The gateway effect of e-cigarettes: reflections on main criticisms","volume":"21","author":"Chapman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026062407013058200_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1136\/tc-2022-057851","article-title":"Update to the design and methods of the PATH study, wave 4 (2016\u20132017)","volume":"33","author":"Opsomer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Tob Control"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062407013058200_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1136\/tc-2023-058466","article-title":"Design and methods of the population assessment of tobacco and health (PATH) study during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"34","author":"DiGaetano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tob Control"},{"issue":"15","key":"2026062407013058200_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"s80","DOI":"10.1080\/10550490601006055","article-title":"Development and validation of the GAIN short screener (GSS) for internalizing, externalizing and substance use disorders and crime\/violence problems among adolescents and adults","volume":"12","author":"Dennis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Addict"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1111\/add.16335","article-title":"Household vaping bans and youth e-cigarette use","volume":"119","author":"Staff J","year":"2024","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref30","volume-title":"Preventing Tobacco Use among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General","author":"National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (US) Office on Smoking and Health","year":"2012"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026062407013058200_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e274","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-2251","article-title":"Parental smoking and adolescent smoking initiation: an intergenerational perspective on tobacco control","volume":"123","author":"Gilman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026062407013058200_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1111\/add.15246","article-title":"Gateway or common liability? A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies of adolescent e-cigarette use and future smoking initiation","volume":"116","author":"Chan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10935-1","article-title":"Association between electronic cigarette use and tobacco cigarette smoking initiation in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"O\u2019Brien","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"119","key":"2026062407013058200_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2014.08.016","article-title":"All gates lead to smoking: the \u2018gateway theory\u2019, e-cigarettes and the remaking of nicotine","volume":"1","author":"Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026062407013058200_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-015-0020-0","article-title":"Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms","volume":"43","author":"Nesi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1150368","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1150368","article-title":"An examination of the social perceptions and vaping preferences of young electronic nicotine delivery system users","volume":"11","author":"Davidson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026062407013058200_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1093\/socpro\/spaa015","article-title":"\u201cHealthier than just healthy\u201d: families transmitting health as cultural capital","volume":"68","author":"Mollborn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc Probl"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026062407013058200_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-3531","article-title":"Self-reported use of tobacco, e-cigarettes, and marijuana versus urinary biomarkers","volume":"143","author":"Boykan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026062407013058200_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.13961","article-title":"Associations of parenting styles with substance use in the offspring\u2014a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Pinquart","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Rev"},{"key":"2026062407013058200_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3886\/ICPSR36498.v22","volume-title":"PATH Study Wave 7 Data Collection. Nonresponse Bias Analysis Report","author":"Westat","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Nicotine and Tobacco Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntaf264\/66124135\/ntaf264.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article-pdf\/28\/7\/1156\/66124135\/ntaf264.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article-pdf\/28\/7\/1156\/66124135\/ntaf264.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T11:01:41Z","timestamp":1782298901000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article\/28\/7\/1156\/8404262"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntaf264","relation":{},"ISSN":["1469-994X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1469-994X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]]}}}