{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:07:48Z","timestamp":1792786068670,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]],"date-time":"2026-05-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779494400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006108","name":"National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UG3 TR004797-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UG3 TR004797-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006108","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000054","name":"National Cancer Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 CA266170-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 CA266170-01A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000054","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Drug Abuse","award":["R01 DA054276-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 DA054276-01A1"]}]},{"name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research Doctoral Foreign Study","award":["202310DFD-513256-DRA-86383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202310DFD-513256-DRA-86383"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01gavpb45","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"National Institutes of Drug Abuse","award":["3R01DA054276-03S1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3R01DA054276-03S1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) being used for smoking cessation during pregnancy, the relative consequences are still unclear. Here, we systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed birth outcomes associated with ENDS use.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This review is reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. OVID (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO) and PubMed databases were searched from inception until August 2025, for studies comparing outcomes from in utero exclusive ENDS exposure to non-exposed, exclusive nicotine replacement therapy\u2013exposed, or exclusive combustible cigarette (CC)\u2013exposed neonates.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We included k\u2009=\u200922 studies with k\u2009=\u200910 independent samples. In ENDS-exposed vs non-exposed births, there were significantly greater odds of preterm birth (k\u2009=\u00a03; moderate confidence) but not small for gestational age (SGA; k\u2009=\u00a03; low confidence); these findings were less robust to sensitivity analysis. Additionally, there was no significant difference in SGA (k\u2009=\u00a03; moderate confidence) or preterm birth (k\u2009=\u00a03; high confidence) between CC-exposed and ENDS-exposed neonates; these findings were robust to sensitivity analysis. Analysis of continuous outcomes found lower birthweight in ENDS- vs non-exposed neonates (k\u2009=\u00a04; moderate confidence) and lower birthweight in CC- vs ENDS-exposed neonates (k\u2009=\u00a04; low confidence), and no difference in gestational age in either comparison (low confidence). Narrative synthesis suggests quitting ENDS was associated with better birth outcomes, and associations between ENDS and delayed development of infant motor maturity and reflexes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>ENDS exposure may confer comparable risk as cigarette smoking to preterm birth. Further research is needed given low to moderate confidence in findings and risk of bias conferred by limited classification of exclusive ENDS use.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Implications<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>With respect to adverse birth outcomes, ENDS may constitute a risk compared to no-nicotine exposure, suggesting the importance of investigating vaping cessation interventions, as well as greater research into alternative smoking cessation interventions for people who are pregnant or want to become pregnant.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntag118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,22]],"date-time":"2026-05-22T11:51:14Z","timestamp":1779450674000},"page":"1635-1649","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Birth outcomes following intrauterine exposure to electronic nicotine delivery systems: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5459-265X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha","family":"Johnstone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo , Buffalo, NY 14260 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashley","family":"Schenkel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo , Buffalo, NY 14260 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha","family":"Canazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo , Buffalo, NY 14260 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rina D","family":"Eiden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University , Pennsylvania, PA 16802 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6593-9746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Larry W","family":"Hawk, Jr.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo , Buffalo, NY 14260 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-015-0690-y","article-title":"Short and long term health effects of parental tobacco smoking during pregnancy and lactation: a descriptive review","volume":"13","author":"Banderali","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Transl Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70182-1","article-title":"Dose and timing of prenatal tobacco exposure: threats to early child development","volume":"2","author":"Black","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref3","volume-title":"The Health Consequences of Smoking\u201450 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General","author":"Health UDo, Services H","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-devpsych-120621-043414","article-title":"Prenatal substance exposure. Annual review of","volume":"5","author":"Eiden","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref5","volume-title":"Women and Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General: Department of Health and Human Services","author":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services","year":"2001"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.15620\/cdc:123360","volume-title":"Declines in Cigarette Smoking during Pregnancy in the United States, 2016\u20132021","author":"Martin","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref7","article-title":"Current electronic cigarette use among adults aged 18 and over: United States","author":"Kramarow","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17226\/24952","volume-title":"Public Health Consequences of e-Cigarettes","author":"National Academies of Sciences E, Medicine","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11030278","article-title":"Electronic cigarette use during pregnancy: is it harmful?","volume":"11","author":"Vilcassim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-020-03085-0","article-title":"Gestational women\u2019s perceptions about the harms of cigarette and E-cigarette use during pregnancy","volume":"25","author":"Dobbs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Matern Child Health J"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-015-2586-4","article-title":"A qualitative assessment of the perceived risks of electronic cigarette and hookah use in pregnancy","volume":"15","author":"Kahr","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6808a1","article-title":"Use of electronic vapor products before, during, and after pregnancy among women with a recent live birth\u2014Oklahoma and Texas, 2015","volume":"68","author":"Kapaya","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-020-00359-2","article-title":"Potential effects of using non-combustible tobacco and nicotine products during pregnancy: a systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Glover","year":"2020","journal-title":"Harm Reduct J"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntab017","article-title":"Vaping in pregnancy: a systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Calder","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-021-00381-9","article-title":"Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) use and pregnancy II: perinatal outcomes following ENDS use during pregnancy","volume":"8","author":"DeVito","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Addict Rep"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2024.137028","article-title":"Associations between vaping during pregnancy and perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"486","author":"Deprato","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Hazard Mater"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2025.101951","article-title":"Maternal vaping and pregnancy adverse outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"38","author":"Vall\u00e9e","year":"2025","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1002\/pd.5660","article-title":"The impact of tobacco chemicals and nicotine on placental development","volume":"40","author":"Suter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prenat Diagn"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5083","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18105083","article-title":"Epigenetic alterations of maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy: a narrative review","volume":"18","author":"Nakamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyy110","article-title":"Placental weight and birthweight: the relations with number of daily cigarettes and smoking cessation in pregnancy. A population study","volume":"47","author":"Larsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2013.273","article-title":"Prenatal tobacco exposure and brain morphology: a prospective study in young children","volume":"39","author":"El Marroun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054710374576","article-title":"Adverse effects of heavy prenatal maternal smoking on attentional control in children with ADHD","volume":"15","author":"Motlagh","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1605544114","article-title":"Decline in the negative association between low birth weight and cognitive ability","volume":"114","author":"Goisis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cppeds.2014.03.007","article-title":"Physical, Behavioral, and cognitive effects of prenatal tobacco and postnatal Secondhand smoke exposure","volume":"44","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.placenta.2005.02.003","article-title":"The adverse effects of maternal smoking on the human placenta: a review","volume":"26","author":"Zdravkovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Placenta"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2003.08.005","article-title":"Alterations of brain tissue in fetal rats exposed to nicotine in utero: possible involvement of nitric oxide and catecholamines","volume":"26","author":"\u00d6nal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.20391","article-title":"Growth retardation of fetal rats exposed to nicotine in utero: possible involvement of CYP1A1, CYP2E1, and P-glycoprotein","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ Toxicol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.2174\/157015907781695955","article-title":"Effects of nicotine during pregnancy: human and experimental evidence","volume":"5","author":"Wickstrom","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr Neuropharmacol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.2165\/00002018-200124040-00005","article-title":"Risks and benefits of nicotine to aid smoking cessation in pregnancy","volume":"24","author":"Dempsey","year":"2001","journal-title":"Drug Saf"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2419245","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.19245","article-title":"Smoking cessation pharmacotherapy use in pregnancy","volume":"7","author":"Robijn","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2643","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-017-4665-y","article-title":"Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic assessment of electronic cigarettes, combustible cigarettes, and nicotine gum: implications for abuse liability","volume":"234","author":"Stiles","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2077","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-018-4904-x","article-title":"Assessment of the abuse liability of three menthol Vuse solo electronic cigarettes relative to combustible cigarettes and nicotine gum","volume":"235","author":"Stiles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108395","article-title":"Abuse liability assessment of the JUUL system in four flavors relative to combustible cigarette, nicotine gum and a comparator electronic nicotine delivery system among adult smokers","volume":"217","author":"Goldenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref34","volume-title":"Toxicology of E-Cigarette Constituents","author":"Eaton","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e185937","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2018.5937","article-title":"Comparison of nicotine and toxicant exposure in users of electronic cigarettes and combustible cigarettes","volume":"1","author":"Goniewicz","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2147891","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.47891","article-title":"Exposure to toxicants associated with use and transitions between cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and No tobacco","volume":"5","author":"Dai","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7297","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34427-x","article-title":"Comparison of biomarkers of exposure among US adult smokers, users of electronic nicotine delivery systems, dual users and nonusers, 2018\u20132019","volume":"13","author":"Holt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntu174","article-title":"Effects of user puff topography, device voltage, and liquid nicotine concentration on electronic cigarette nicotine yield: measurements and model predictions","volume":"17","author":"Talih","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9644","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01741","article-title":"Emissions from electronic cigarettes: key parameters affecting the release of harmful chemicals","volume":"50","author":"Sleiman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2023.11.056","article-title":"38 impact of gestational E-cigarette aerosols on uterine artery function in rats","volume":"230","author":"Juusela","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2019.01.001","article-title":"Chronic exposure to e-cig aerosols during early development causes vascular dysfunction and offspring growth deficits","volume":"207","author":"Orzabal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00582.2022","article-title":"Maternal electronic cigarette use during pregnancy affects long-term arterial function in offspring","volume":"134","author":"Aboaziza","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1210\/js.2019-00216","article-title":"E-cigarette exposure delays implantation and causes reduced weight gain in female offspring exposed in utero","volume":"3","author":"Wetendorf","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Endocr Soc"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntac018","article-title":"Effects of prenatal nicotine, THC, or Co-exposure on cognitive Behaviors in adolescent male and female rats","volume":"24","author":"Lallai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2020.112911","article-title":"Effect of electronic cigarette aerosol exposure during gestation and lactation on learning and memory of adult male offspring rats","volume":"221","author":"Al-Sawalha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"Statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.11.006","article-title":"Reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"27","author":"Paul","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2020.08.002","article-title":"Dual use of cigarettes and electronic nicotine delivery systems during pregnancy and the risk of small for gestational age neonates","volume":"52","author":"Cardenas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2024.108602","volume":"186","author":"","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i4919","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i4919","article-title":"ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions","volume":"355","author":"Sterne","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2018.304563","article-title":"The pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system (PRAMS): overview of design and methodology","volume":"108","author":"Shulman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2347407","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.47407","article-title":"Use of E-cigarettes and cigarettes during late pregnancy among adolescents","volume":"6","author":"Wen","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0287348","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0287348","article-title":"Electronic cigarette use during pregnancy and the risk of adverse birth outcomes: a cross-sectional surveillance study of the US Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) population","volume":"18","author":"Ammar","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-015-0024-z","article-title":"The heterogeneity statistic I2 can be biased in small meta-analyses","volume":"15","author":"von Hippel","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x","article-title":"Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot\u2013based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Duval","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03","article-title":"Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package","volume":"36","author":"Viechtbauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/106089","article-title":"Use of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) by pregnant women I: risk of small-for-gestational-age birth","volume":"17","author":"Cardenas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tob Induc Dis"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01808-0","article-title":"Electronic cigarettes versus nicotine patches for smoking cessation in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"28","author":"Hajek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0252817","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0252817","article-title":"Electronic cigarette use (vaping) and patterns of tobacco cigarette smoking in pregnancy\u2013evidence from a population-based maternity survey in England","volume":"16","author":"Opondo","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000004432","article-title":"Adverse birth outcomes associated with prepregnancy and prenatal electronic cigarette use","volume":"138","author":"Regan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2632","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032632","article-title":"Adverse maternal and infant outcomes of women who differ in smoking status: E-cigarette and tobacco cigarette users","volume":"20","author":"Nanninga","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6868","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2021.1929156","article-title":"Associations between electronic nicotine delivery systems and birth outcomes","volume":"35","author":"Hawkins","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-020-03247-6","article-title":"Electronic cigarettes may not be a \u201csafer alternative\u201d of conventional cigarettes during pregnancy: evidence from the nationally representative PRAMS data","volume":"20","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2020.106041","article-title":"Smoking and use of electronic cigarettes (vaping) in relation to preterm birth and small-for-gestational-age in a 2016 U.S. national sample","volume":"134","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloepi.2022.100079","article-title":"Exposure-response analysis of the association of maternal smoking and use of electronic cigarettes (vaping) in relation to preterm birth and small-for-gestational-age in a national US sample, 2016\u20132018","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2021.11.1354","article-title":"Changes in e-cigarette and cigarette use during pregnancy and their association with small-for-gestational-age birth","volume":"226","author":"Shittu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13508","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92930-5","article-title":"Patterns of combustible and electronic cigarette use during pregnancy and associated pregnancy outcomes","volume":"11","author":"Regan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100602","article-title":"The effects of prenatal cigarette and e-cigarette exposure on infant neurobehaviour: a comparison to a control group","volume":"28","author":"Froggatt","year":"2020","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.16110","article-title":"Electronic cigarettes and obstetric outcomes: a prospective observational study","volume":"127","author":"McDonnell","year":"2020","journal-title":"BJOG Int J Obstet Gynaecol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21091179","article-title":"Fetal growth following electronic cigarette use in pregnancy","volume":"21","author":"Bailey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21111449","article-title":"Intrapartum electronic cigarette use and birth outcomes: evidence from a population-based study","volume":"21","author":"Azar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntac111","article-title":"Birth outcomes associated with E-cigarette and non-E-cigarette tobacco product use during pregnancy: an examination of PATH data waves 1-5","volume":"25","author":"Cohn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2022.107375","article-title":"E-cigarette use during pregnancy and its association with adverse birth outcomes in the US","volume":"166","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-021-03161-z","article-title":"Longitudinal examination of prenatal tobacco switching Behaviors and birth outcomes, including electronic nicotine delivery system (ENDS) and dual use","volume":"25","author":"Ashford","year":"2021","journal-title":"Matern Child Health J"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1111\/add.16422","article-title":"Safety of e-cigarettes and nicotine patches as stop-smoking aids in pregnancy: secondary analysis of the pregnancy trial of E-cigarettes and patches (PREP) randomized controlled trial","volume":"119","author":"Pesola","year":"2024","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e31816339c6","article-title":"Weight at birth and all-cause mortality in adulthood","volume":"19","author":"Baker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwt304","article-title":"Birth weight, physical morbidity, and mortality: a population-based sibling-comparison study","volume":"179","author":"Class","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.6.989","article-title":"Birth weight and cognitive ability in childhood: a systematic review","volume":"130","author":"Shenkin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1177\/0001699314543803","article-title":"The effects of social origins and cognitive ability on educational attainment: evidence from Britain and Sweden","volume":"57","author":"Bukodi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Sociol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvb.2012.07.005","article-title":"Childhood cognitive ability, education, and personality traits predict attainment in adult occupational prestige over 17 years","volume":"81","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Vocat Behav"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref81","first-page":"241","article-title":"Childhood cognitive ability and adult academic attainment: evidence from three British cohort studies","volume-title":"Longitud. Life Course Stud","author":"Schoon","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-010-1125-y","article-title":"Preterm birth and neurodevelopmental outcome: a review","volume":"26","author":"Arpino","year":"2010","journal-title":"Childs Nerv Syst"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00117","article-title":"Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex","volume":"71","author":"Diamond","year":"2000","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105825","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations between motor milestone timing and motor development in neurodevelopmental conditions","volume":"167","author":"Bowler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010418-102836","article-title":"Motor development: embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling","volume":"70","author":"Adolph","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579412001137","article-title":"The longitudinal development of emotion regulation capacities in children at risk for externalizing disorders","volume":"25","author":"Halligan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev Psychopathol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntz132","article-title":"Biochemical verification of tobacco use and abstinence: 2019 update","volume":"22","author":"Benowitz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2021.108507","article-title":"Frequency of cannabis use during pregnancy and adverse infant outcomes, by cigarette smoking status \u2013 8 PRAMS states, 2017","volume":"220","author":"Haight","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e006323","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-006323","article-title":"Prevalence and predictors of alcohol use during pregnancy: findings from international multicentre cohort studies","volume":"5","author":"Keeffe","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2018.06.002","article-title":"Additive drug-specific and sex-specific risks associated with co-use of marijuana and tobacco during pregnancy: evidence from 3 recent developmental cohorts (2003\u20132015)","volume":"68","author":"Massey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2024.107371","article-title":"Prenatal tobacco and tobacco-cannabis co-exposure: relationship with attention and memory in middle childhood","volume":"104","author":"Shisler","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026092405565708800_ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1372","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-6137-7","article-title":"The association between active tobacco use during pregnancy and growth outcomes of children under five years of age: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Quelhas","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"}],"container-title":["Nicotine &amp; Tobacco Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntag118\/68374460\/ntag118.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article-pdf\/28\/10\/1635\/68374460\/ntag118.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article-pdf\/28\/10\/1635\/68374460\/ntag118.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T09:57:05Z","timestamp":1790243825000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ntr\/article\/28\/10\/1635\/8691501"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntag118","relation":{},"ISSN":["1469-994X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1469-994X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]]}}}