{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T23:52:10Z","timestamp":1792540330339,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]],"date-time":"2025-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The global burden of mortality from lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) disproportionately impacts children under 5 years of age in low- and middle-income countries. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading pathogenic cause of LRTI morbidity and mortality worldwide. While the global scale-up of childhood pneumococcal vaccination has lowered mortality, air pollution remains a top risk factor for death from LRTI. Climate change will likely alter patterns of exposure to ambient dust, ambient biomass smoke, and household use of higher-polluting fuels. It is therefore important for pediatric infectious disease practitioners to understand the impact of air pollution on the epidemiology of infection from S. pneumoniae and other major respiratory tract pathogens affecting children. This article provides an overview of the available evidence on the impact of pneumococcal pneumonia on child mortality, introduces air pollution concepts, describes mechanisms by which air pollution contributes to respiratory disease, and highlights environmental risk factors for LRTI with a focus on S. pneumoniae.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]],"date-time":"2025-04-19T06:57:41Z","timestamp":1745045861000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Air Pollution and Global Pediatric Pneumococcal Disease"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4655-0377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristen A","family":"Bastug","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School , Minneapolis, Minnesota ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5922-0241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beth K","family":"Thielen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School , Minneapolis, Minnesota ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9664-5959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter P","family":"Moschovis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Divisions of Pediatric Pulmonary Medicine and Global Health and Infectious Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5052-7730","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nadia A","family":"Sam-Agudu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School , Minneapolis, Minnesota ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Global Pediatrics Program, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School , Minneapolis, Minnesota ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"International Research Center of Excellence, Institute of Human Virology Nigeria , Abuja ,","place":["Nigeria"]},{"name":"Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Cape Coast School of Medical Sciences , Cape Coast ,","place":["Ghana"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30310-4","article-title":"Estimates of the global, regional, and national morbidity, mortality, and aetiologies of lower respiratory infections in 195 countries, 1990\u20132016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"18","author":"GBD 2016 Lower Respiratory Infections Collaborators","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)02185-7","article-title":"Global mortality associated with 33 bacterial pathogens in 2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"400","author":"GBD 2019 Antimicrobial Resistance Collaborators","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Lond Engl"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e744","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30247-X","article-title":"Burden of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in children in the era of conjugate vaccines: global, regional, and national estimates for 2000\u201315","volume":"6","author":"Wahl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B4"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B5","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.59327\/IPCC\/AR6-9789291691647"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Global Burden of Disease from Major Air Pollution Sources (GBD MAPS): a global approach","volume":"2021","author":"McDuffie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res Rep Health Eff Inst"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B8","author":"Petchesi"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106790","article-title":"Mechanisms underlying the health effects of desert sand dust","volume":"157","author":"Fussell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.106196","article-title":"Nitrogen dioxide exposures from LPG stoves in a cleaner-cooking intervention trial","volume":"146","author":"Kephart","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e451","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30197-2","article-title":"Household and personal air pollution exposure measurements from 120 communities in eight countries: results from the PURE-AIR study","volume":"4","author":"Shupler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.08.026","article-title":"Global estimation of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from household air pollution","volume":"120","author":"Shupler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B13"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.104909","article-title":"An ensemble-based model of PM2.5 concentration across the contiguous United States with high spatiotemporal resolution","volume":"130","author":"Di","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7511","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19127511","article-title":"Recent insights into particulate matter (PM2.5)-mediated toxicity in humans: an overview","volume":"19","author":"Thangavel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-011-0203-1","article-title":"Clearing the air: a review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health","volume":"8","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Med Toxicol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B17","first-page":"43","article-title":"Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio- respiratory mortality: a review","volume":"12","author":"Hoek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ Health Glob Access Sci Source"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-0403-3","article-title":"The health effects of ultrafine particles","volume":"52","author":"Schraufnagel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp Mol Med"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-020-00687-7","article-title":"Short-term exposure to air pollution and hospital admission for pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Yee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-015-0383-y","article-title":"Fine particulate air pollution and hospitalization for pneumonia: a case-crossover study in Shijiazhuang, China","volume":"9","author":"Duan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmosphere Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14010047","article-title":"Impact of air pollutants on outpatient visits for acute respiratory outcomes","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.01.038","article-title":"Household concentrations and personal exposure of PM2.5 among urban residents using different cooking fuels","volume":"548\u20139","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B23","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B24"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2015.1020396","article-title":"Long-term particulate matter exposure: attributing health effects to individual PM components","volume":"65","author":"Wyzga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Air Waste Manag Assoc"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2014.1001884","article-title":"Particulate matter components, sources, and health: systematic approaches to testing effects","volume":"65","author":"Adams","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Air Waste Manag Assoc"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-015-4755-4","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variations of the particulate size distribution and chemical composition over Ibadan, Nigeria","volume":"187","author":"Akinlade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ Monit Assess"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1039\/C3EM00719G","article-title":"Composition and sources of fine particulate matter across urban and rural sites in the Midwestern United States","volume":"16","author":"Kundu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ Sci Process Impacts"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4104","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD029336","article-title":"Desert dust, industrialization, and agricultural fires: health impacts of outdoor air pollution in Africa","volume":"124","author":"Bauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Geophys Res Atmospheres"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1086\/322048","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Finnish children younger than 2 years old","volume":"184","author":"Syrj\u00e4nen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(04)00938-7","article-title":"Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: the key to pneumococcal disease","volume":"4","author":"Bogaert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1993.tb12576.x","article-title":"Prevalence of potential respiratory disease bacteria in children in Ethiopia. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the pathogens and use of antibiotics among the children","volume":"82","author":"Ringertz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2006.01565.x","article-title":"Serotype distribution and antibiotic susceptibility of invasive and nasopharyngeal isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae among children in rural Mozambique","volume":"11","author":"Vall\u00e8s","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e85001","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0085001","article-title":"Pneumococcal carriage in Sub-Saharan Africa\u2014a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Usuf","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0000327","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000327","article-title":"Factors associated with pneumococcal nasopharyngeal carriage: a systematic review","volume":"2","author":"Neal","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLOS Glob Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B36","first-page":"836","article-title":"Effects of PM2.5 exposure on Klebsiella pneumoniae clearance in the lungs of rats [in Chinese]","volume":"36","author":"Duan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42390","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10574-w","article-title":"Inflammatory effects of particulate matter air pollution","volume":"27","author":"Arias-P\u00e9rez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Sci Pollut Res Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45666","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45666","article-title":"Exposure to ambient particulate matter induced COPD in a rat model and a description of the underlying mechanism","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-5687(94)90007-8","article-title":"Effects of wood and cotton smoke on the surface properties of pulmonary surfactant","volume":"97","author":"Nieman","year":"1994","journal-title":"Respir Physiol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1023\/B:IFLA.0000033022.66289.04","article-title":"In vivo effect of wood smoke on the expression of two mucin genes in rat airways","volume":"28","author":"Bhattacharyya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Inflammation"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.11.039","article-title":"Adhesion of Streptococcus pneumoniae to human airway epithelial cells exposed to urban particulate matter","volume":"127","author":"Mushtaq","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2010.11.001","article-title":"PM 2.5 collected in a residential area induced th1-type inflammatory responses with oxidative stress in mice","volume":"111","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.3109\/08958378.2012.756086","article-title":"Adverse effects of wood smoke PM2.5 exposure on macrophage functions","volume":"25","author":"Migliaccio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inhal Toxicol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.04.062","article-title":"Airborne dust and high temperatures are risk factors for invasive bacterial disease","volume":"139","author":"Jusot","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2019-106175","article-title":"Occupational exposure to dust and to fumes, work as a welder and invasive pneumococcal disease risk","volume":"77","author":"Tor\u00e9n","year":"2020","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202112-2668TR","article-title":"Mechanistic insights into the impact of air pollution on pneumococcal pathogenesis and transmission","volume":"206","author":"Beentjes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.05.061","article-title":"Monitoring the impact of desert dust outbreaks for air quality for health studies","volume":"130","author":"Querol","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B48"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2004.10.013","article-title":"Characteristics of PM10, SO2, NOx and O3 in ambient air during the dust storm period in Beijing","volume":"345","author":"Xie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-14-957-2014","article-title":"Modeled global effects of airborne desert dust on air quality and premature mortality","volume":"14","author":"Giannadaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmospheric Chem Phys"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168945","article-title":"Ambient dust pollution with all-cause, cardiovascular and respiratory mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"912","author":"Pouri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B52"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6674","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b06200","article-title":"Community vulnerability to health impacts of wildland fire smoke exposure","volume":"51","author":"Rappold","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28835-2","article-title":"Spatial and temporal expansion of global wildland fire activity in response to climate change","volume":"13","author":"Senande-Rivera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.08.005","article-title":"The collection 6 MODIS burned area mapping algorithm and product","volume":"217","author":"Giglio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-060222-034131","article-title":"Climate change, landscape fires, and human health: a global perspective","volume":"45","author":"Johnston","year":"2024","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e588","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(21)00153-4","article-title":"Associations between exposure to landscape fire smoke and child mortality in low-income and middle-income countries: a matched case-control study","volume":"5","author":"Xue","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e41","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(23)00251-6","article-title":"Associations between landscape fires and child morbidity in Southern Mozambique: a time-series study","volume":"8","author":"Curto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2021.118210","article-title":"Global impact of landscape fire emissions on surface level PM2.5 concentrations, air quality exposure and population mortality","volume":"252","author":"Roberts","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B60","author":"World Health Organization"},{"issue":"A","key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105150","article-title":"Examining the relationship between household air pollution and infant microbial nasal carriage in a Ghanaian cohort","volume":"133","author":"Carri\u00f3n","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e246","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00405-8","article-title":"Association between household air pollution and nasopharyngeal pneumococcal carriage in Malawian infants (MSCAPE): a nested, prospective, observational study","volume":"10","author":"Dherani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00052-2018","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00052-2018","article-title":"Indoor air pollution and tobacco smoke exposure: impact on nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage in mothers and infants in an African birth cohort study","volume":"5","author":"Vanker","year":"2019","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0277348","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0277348","article-title":"Household fuel use and its association with potential respiratory pathogens among healthy mothers and children in Ethiopia","volume":"17","author":"Tamire","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"XXX\u2013XX","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofx161","article-title":"Nasopharyngeal pneumococcal density is associated with viral activity but not with use of improved stoves among young Andean children","volume":"4","author":"Howard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B66","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B67"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.120392","article-title":"Air pollution control and health economic burdens: evidence from a megacity in China from 2014 through 2022","volume":"264","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B69","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B70","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6178","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176178","article-title":"Lung health in children in Sub-Saharan Africa: addressing the need for cleaner air","volume":"17","author":"Masekela","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.166340","article-title":"The impact of air pollution on respiratory diseases in an era of climate change: a review of the current evidence","volume":"898","author":"Tran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9729","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18189729","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and respiratory health in Sub-Saharan African children: a cross-sectional analysis","volume":"18","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.03.029","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and health in sub-saharan Africa: current evidence, perspectives and a call to action","volume":"173","author":"Katoto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B75","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B76","first-page":"CD013441","article-title":"Individual-level interventions to reduce personal exposure to outdoor air pollution and their effects on people with long-term respiratory conditions","volume":"2021","author":"Janjua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.159813","article-title":"Interventions for improving indoor and outdoor air quality in and around schools","volume":"858","author":"Rawat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"2025102314014164000_ofaf234-B78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e16546","article-title":"Assessing the combined effect of household cooking fuel and urbanicity on acute respiratory symptoms among under-five years in Sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"9","author":"Amadu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["Open Forum Infectious Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf234\/62956687\/ofaf234.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article-pdf\/12\/10\/ofaf234\/62956687\/ofaf234.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article-pdf\/12\/10\/ofaf234\/62956687\/ofaf234.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T18:01:52Z","timestamp":1761242512000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf234\/8116464"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf234","relation":{},"ISSN":["2328-8957"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2328-8957","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]},"article-number":"ofaf234"}}