{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T04:52:25Z","timestamp":1773118345010,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773014400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":8,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Febrile Illness Evaluation in a Broad Range of Endemicities"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009660","name":"London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["203905\/Z\/16\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["203905\/Z\/16\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009660","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There are few leptospirosis incidence studies despite such estimates being central to accurate burden of disease estimation. We used data from the multicenter Febrile Illness Evaluation in a Broad Range of Endemicities (FIEBRE) study to make leptospirosis incidence estimates from new sites.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Febrile patients aged \u22652 months in Laos, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe were enrolled and underwent standardized clinical and exposure assessment. Acute and convalescent sera were tested by Leptospira microscopic agglutination test and acute plasma by lfb1 polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Participants with \u22654-fold rise in antibody titer between acute and convalescent sample, or Leptospira PCR positive for the lfb1, had confirmed leptospirosis. Leptospirosis incidence was estimated after adjusting for incomplete enrollment of febrile patients, availability of paired sera, and use of study healthcare facilities by febrile patients based on healthcare utilization data from community controls.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Leptospirosis incidence (95% CI) per 100 000 population per year was 1302 (1011, 1677) in Laos, 1337 (874, 2044) in Malawi, 187 (85, 409) in Mozambique, and could not be calculated for Zimbabwe. Sensitivity analysis restricted to pre-COVID years of 2018 and 2019 produced similar estimates of incidence to that of the whole study period.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Leptospirosis incidence was high at the Laos, Malawi, and Mozambique sites and at the upper end of published incidence estimates from the Asia and Africa regions. We recommend more leptospirosis incidence studies be done in areas lacking data to strengthen leptospirosis global burden of disease estimates and to stimulate progress on diagnosis, management, and control.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofag021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T12:19:20Z","timestamp":1768220360000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Leptospirosis Incidence at Four Sites in Sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia: An International Multi-Site Hybrid Surveillance Study"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4529-102X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John A","family":"Crump","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for International Health, University of Otago , Dunedin ,","place":["New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5338-5579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathieu","family":"Picardeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Biologie des Spiroch\u00e8tes, French National Reference Center for Leptospirosis, WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Leptospirosis, Institut Pasteur , Paris ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sara A","family":"Ajanovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade de Manhi\u00e7a , Maputo ,","place":["Mozambique"]},{"name":"ISGlobal\u2014Barcelona Institute for Global Health , Barcelona ,","place":["Spain"]},{"name":"University of Barcelona , Barcelona ,","place":["Spain"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9449-4608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Bradley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology and International Health, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health , London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2350-5584","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justina M","family":"Bramugy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Sa\u00fade de Manhi\u00e7a , Maputo ,","place":["Mozambique"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mabvuto","family":"Chimenya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme , Blantyre ,","place":["Malawi"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edward W","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme , Blantyre ,","place":["Malawi"]},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine , Liverpool ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3650-1398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sham","family":"Lal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Disease Control , Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0031-8276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David C W","family":"Mabey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine , London ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6056-4516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mayfong","family":"Mayxay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital , Vientiane, Lao PDR"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4608-6431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul N","family":"Newton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital , Vientiane, Lao PDR"},{"name":"Nuffield Department of Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford , Oxford ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3392-9257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioana D","family":"Olaru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine , London ,","place":["UK"]},{"name":"Biomedical Research and Training Institute , Harare ,","place":["Zimbabwe"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1076-6758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heidi","family":"Hopkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine , London ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5241-8412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian","family":"Bottomley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology and International Health, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health , London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London ,","place":["UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Febrile Illness Evaluation in a Broad Range of Endemicities (FIEBRE) Consortium","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Amos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth A","family":"Ashley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Baerenbold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"St\u00e9phanie","family":"Baghoumina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"N\u00faria","family":"Balanza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tsitsi","family":"Bandason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Quique","family":"Bassat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tapan","family":"Bhattacharyya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stuart D","family":"Blacksell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zumilda","family":"Boca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Clare I R","family":"Chandler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Chipanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anelsio","family":"Cossa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ethel","family":"Dauya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xavier","family":"de Lamballerie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Dixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Somyoth","family":"Douangphachanh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Audrey","family":"Dubot-P\u00e9r\u00e8s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michelle M","family":"Durkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicholas A","family":"Feasey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rashida A","family":"Ferrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Colin","family":"Fink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth J A","family":"Fitchett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Gerada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephen R","family":"Graves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Becca L","family":"Handley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Coll D","family":"Hutchison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Risara","family":"Jaksuwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jessica","family":"Jervis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jayne","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kevin C","family":"Kain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Suzanne H","family":"Keddie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Khamxeng","family":"Khounpaseuth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Kranzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Khamfong","family":"Kunlaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pankaj","family":"Lal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David G","family":"Lalloo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manophab","family":"Luangraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yoel","family":"Lubell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eleanor","family":"MacPherson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Forget","family":"Makoga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sengchanh","family":"Manichan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Florian","family":"Maurer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Miles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Polycarp","family":"Mogeni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Campos","family":"Mucasse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chelsea","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vilayouth","family":"Phimolsarnnousith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chrissy h","family":"Roberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Amphone","family":"Sengduangphachanh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Siho","family":"Sengsavang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Molly","family":"Sibanda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Somvai","family":"Singha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Stenos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ampai","family":"Tanganuchitcharnchai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hira","family":"Tanvir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James E","family":"Ussher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marie A","family":"Voice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manivanh","family":"Vongsouvath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Msopole","family":"Wamaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shunmay","family":"Yeung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003898","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003898","article-title":"Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review","volume":"9","author":"Costa","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004122","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004122","article-title":"Global burden of leptospirosis: estimated in terms of disability adjusted life years","volume":"9","author":"Torgerson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003899","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003899","article-title":"Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for \u2018one health\u2019 in Africa","volume":"9","author":"Allan","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2014.06.013","article-title":"Leptospirosis in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review","volume":"28","author":"de Vries","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.11-0176","article-title":"Leptospirosis among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania","volume":"85","author":"Biggs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001","article-title":"Leptospirosis","volume":"14","author":"Levett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0905.020428","article-title":"Estimating the incidence of typhoid fever and other febrile illnesses in developing countries","volume":"9","author":"Crump","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S268","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy494","article-title":"Integrating facility-based surveillance with healthcare utilization surveys to estimate enteric fever incidence: methods and challenges","volume":"218","author":"Andrews","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e035632","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-035632","article-title":"Febrile illness evaluation in a broad range of endemicities (FIEBRE): protocol for a multisite prospective observational study of the causes of fever in Africa and Asia","volume":"10","author":"Hopkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B10","first-page":"e206-15","article-title":"Leptospirosis prevalence and risk factors among patients presenting with fever to 4 healthcare sites in sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia: an international multi-site observational and nested case-control study","author":"Crump","year":"2026;","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.054304-0","article-title":"Evaluation of an in-house ELISA using the intermediate species Leptospira fainei for diagnosis of leptospirosis","volume":"62","author":"Bourhy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Med Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-023-08935-0","article-title":"Diagnosis of human leptospirosis: systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of the Leptospira microscopic agglutination test, PCR targeting Lfb1, and IgM ELISA to Leptospira fainei serovar Hurstbridge","volume":"24","author":"Valente","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12E.5.1","DOI":"10.1002\/9780471729259.mc12e05s32","article-title":"Leptospirosis serodiagnosis by the microscopic agglutination test","volume":"32","author":"Goris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Protoc Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0004251","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004251","article-title":"Leptospira serovars for diagnosis of leptospirosis in humans and animals in Africa: common Leptospira isolates and reservoir hosts","volume":"9","author":"Mgode","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02452-10","article-title":"Comparison of real-time PCR assays for the detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp in blood and indentification of variations in target sequences","volume":"49","author":"Bourhy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-10-325","article-title":"Rapid Leptospira identification by direct sequencing of the diagnostic PCR products in New Caledonia","volume":"10","author":"Perez","year":"2010","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010331","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010331","article-title":"Diagnostic method-based underestimation of leptospirosis in clinical and research settings; an experience from a large prospective study in a high endemic setting","volume":"16","author":"Warnasekara","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Neglect Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B18","first-page":"1000132","article-title":"Establishment of valid laboratory case definition for human leptospirosis","volume":"3","author":"Goris","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Bacteriol Parasitol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0005165","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005165","article-title":"Comparison of the estimated incidence of acute leptospirosis in the Kilimanjaro region of Tanzania between 2007\u201308 and 2012\u201314","volume":"10","author":"Maze","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e978-88","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(22)00119-X","article-title":"Incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid fever in Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan: results of the Surveillance for Enteric Fever in Asia Project","volume":"10","author":"Garrett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e599","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(24)00007-X","article-title":"Incidence of typhoid fever in Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, and Nigeria (the Severe Typhoid in Africa programme): a population-based study","volume":"12","author":"Marks","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.2.803-809.2003","article-title":"Evaluation of four commercially available rapid serologic tests for diagnosis of leptospirosis","volume":"41","author":"Bajani","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.1992.10475842","article-title":"A note on the delta method","volume":"46","author":"Oehlert","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am Stat"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608719","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/608719","article-title":"Estimating prevalence using an imperfect test","volume":"2011","author":"Diggle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol Res Int"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B25","first-page":"569","article-title":"Anademic focus of leptospirosis at Fondem (U.R. Of Cameroon)","volume":"70","author":"Le Bras","year":"1977","journal-title":"Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1998.59.933","article-title":"Human leptospirosis in the Seychelles (Indian Ocean): a population-based study","volume":"59","author":"Yersin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.4314\/ejhd.v18i1.9866","article-title":"Human leptospirosis, in Ethiopia: a pilot study in Wonji","volume":"18","author":"Yimer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ethiop J Health Dev"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B28","first-page":"546","article-title":"Leptospirosis in Takeo Province, Kingdom of Cambodia, 2003","volume":"90","author":"Seng","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Med Assoc Thai"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B29","first-page":"289","article-title":"An outbreak of leptospirosis, Thailand: the importance of the laboratory","volume":"36","author":"Sejvar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.63.204","article-title":"Risk factors associated with leptospirosis in northeastern Thailand, 1998","volume":"63","author":"Tangkanakul","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.135","article-title":"Leptospirosis in kamphaeng phet, Thailand","volume":"76","author":"Myint","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"2026030912313646300_ofag021-B32","first-page":"281","article-title":"Leptospirosis: an emerging health problem in Thailand","volume":"36","author":"Tangkanakul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J Trop Med Pub Health"}],"container-title":["Open Forum Infectious Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article-pdf\/13\/3\/ofag021\/67210135\/ofag021.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article-pdf\/13\/3\/ofag021\/67210135\/ofag021.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T16:31:48Z","timestamp":1773073908000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ofid\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofag021\/8504190"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ofid\/ofag021","relation":{},"ISSN":["2328-8957"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2328-8957","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"article-number":"ofag021"}}