{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T12:43:46Z","timestamp":1777293826764,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,15]],"date-time":"2018-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1518652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":14,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The majority of oral antibiotics are prescribed in outpatient primary and urgent care clinics for acute respiratory infections. Effective antibiotic stewardship must include proper prescribing for outpatients as well as for those in a hospital or long-term care facility.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Major databases, including MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library, were searched for prospective human clinical studies, including children and\/or adults published between January 1966 and November 2017 that evaluated Myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) as a biomarker for diagnosing viral infections as well as both C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT) as potential biomarkers for identifying and differentiating true bacterial upper respiratory infection (URI) from colonization.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Ten prospective human studies, totaling 1683 patients, were identified that evaluated MxA as a viral biomarker in children and\/or adults. Both systematic review articles, meta-analyses, and randomized controlled clinical trials that examined CRP and\/or PCT as a biomarker for identifying clinically significant bacterial infections and supporting antibiotic stewardship were identified.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Quick and accurate differentiation between a viral and bacterial respiratory infection is critical to effectively combat antibiotic misuse. MxA expression in peripheral blood is a highly specific marker for viral infection. Combining MxA with other inflammatory biomarkers to test for respiratory infections offers enhanced sensitivity and specificity, forming an excellent tool for antibiotic stewardship in the outpatient setting.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofy024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,15]],"date-time":"2018-02-15T08:37:02Z","timestamp":1518683822000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Outpatient Antibiotic Stewardship: A Growing Frontier\u2014Combining Myxovirus Resistance Protein A With Other Biomarkers to Improve Antibiotic Use"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Patrick","family":"Joseph","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Private Practice to California Infection Control Consultants, San Ramon, California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eliot","family":"Godofsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hepatitis Center, Bradenton, Florida"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"2020081004274355000_CIT0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.7326\/L16-0284","article-title":"Appropriate antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infection in adults","volume":"165","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"2020081004274355000_CIT0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200101183440308","article-title":"Acute pharyngitis","volume":"344","author":"Bisno","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2020081004274355000_CIT0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2017.01.002","article-title":"Aetiology of febrile pharyngitis in children: potential of myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) as a biomarker of viral infection","volume":"74","author":"Ivaska","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"2020081004274355000_CIT0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-139-2-200307150-00011","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of adults with pharyngitis. 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