{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T20:55:10Z","timestamp":1780088110961,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CCSG","award":["P30 CA13696"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 CA13696"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 2004, researchers in the United Kingdom were able to train six dogs to distinguish between urine samples from bladder cancer patients and healthy controls using smell, achieving a detection rate of 41% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 23-58%), far above the 14% expected by chance. After numerous subsequent studies validated that the odor of breath and urine samples could be used by dogs to detect cancer, researchers pivoted to electronic noses (eNoses), sensor-based systems that mimic the sense of smell using arrays of chemical detectors. In this study, we review the potential efficacy of eNoses in the detection of selected cancer types in human biological samples.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We identified and performed a meta-analysis on 37 studies of eNose technology, comprising 1 365 cancer patients and 2 249 control subjects. We calculated the pooled sensitivity and specificity stratified by cancer type, sample type, and sensor type. Meta-regressions were conducted on these variables as well as the number of sensors used in the sensor array.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>All six cancer types analyzed\u2014breast, colorectal, gastric, lung, ovarian, and prostate\u2014achieved pooled sensitivities and specificities above 70%, with most around 85%. The overall pooled sensitivity was 85.9% (95% CI: 82.3-88.9%) and specificity was 83.6% (95% CI: 78.6-87.7%). Meta-regression revealed that the number of sensors in the sensor arrays, up to 15 sensors, was predictive of sensitivity with PFDR &amp;lt; 0.001.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This analysis found that eNoses constitute a promising tool in the early detection of cancer. However, more research is necessary before it can be introduced into clinical settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/oncolo\/oyag016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T12:59:27Z","timestamp":1769086767000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["eNose technologies in the detection of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Eitan J","family":"Neugut","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, Columbia University , New York, NY 10027,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5949-4522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfred I","family":"Neugut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University , New York, NY 10032,","place":["United States"]},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University , New York, NY 10032,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(89)92257-5","article-title":"Sniffer dogs in the melanoma clinic?","volume":"1","author":"Williams","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lancet Lond Engl"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.329.7468.712","article-title":"Olfactory detection of human bladder cancer by dogs: proof of principle study","volume":"329","author":"Willis","year":"2004","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3233\/CBM-2011-0208","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds as biomarkers of bladder cancer: sensitivity and specificity using trained sniffer dogs","volume":"8","author":"Willis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer Biomark"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1177\/1534735405285096","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of canine scent detection in early- and late-Stage lung and breast cancers","volume":"5","author":"McCulloch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Integr Cancer Ther"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B5","first-page":"567","article-title":"Canine scent detection of volatile elements, characteristic of malignant cells, in cell cultures","volume":"17","author":"Yoel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Isr Med Assoc J"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1159\/000492895","article-title":"A new transcutaneous method for breast cancer detection with dogs","volume":"96","author":"Thuleau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncology"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2010.218305","article-title":"Colorectal cancer screening with odour material by canine scent detection","volume":"60","author":"Sonoda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"046002","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7163\/aa7b8e","article-title":"The detection of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) from patients\u2019 breath using canine scent detection: a proof-of-concept study","volume":"11","author":"Kitiyakara","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Breath Res"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00051711","article-title":"Canine scent detection in the diagnosis of lung cancer: revisiting a puzzling phenomenon","volume":"39","author":"Ehmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1093\/icvts\/ivr070","article-title":"Sniffer dogs as part of a bimodal bionic research approach to develop a lung cancer screening","volume":"14","author":"Boedeker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg"},{"key":"2026021612221195000_oyag016-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.3109\/0284186X.2013.819996","article-title":"Can dogs smell lung cancer? 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