{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T18:06:41Z","timestamp":1790705201384,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]],"date-time":"2023-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674432000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":22,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R61MH113772"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R61MH113772"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006732","name":"New York University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006732","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The mechanisms underlying the subjective experiences of mental disorders remain poorly understood. This is partly due to long-standing over-emphasis on behavioral and physiological symptoms and a de-emphasis of the patient\u2019s subjective experiences when searching for treatments. Here, we provide a new perspective on the subjective experience of mental disorders based on findings in neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI). Specifically, we propose the subjective experience that occurs in visual imagination depends on mechanisms similar to generative adversarial networks that have recently been developed in AI. The basic idea is that a generator network fabricates a prediction of the world, and a discriminator network determines whether it is likely real or not. Given that similar adversarial interactions occur in the two major visual pathways of perception in people, we explored whether we could leverage this AI-inspired approach to better understand the intrusive imagery experiences of patients suffering from mental illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder. In our model, a nonconscious visual pathway generates predictions of the environment that influence the parallel but interacting conscious pathway. We propose that in some patients, an imbalance in these adversarial interactions leads to an overrepresentation of disturbing content relative to current reality, and results in debilitating flashbacks. By situating the subjective experience of intrusive visual imagery in the adversarial interaction of these visual pathways, we propose testable hypotheses on novel mechanisms and clinical applications for controlling and possibly preventing symptoms resulting from intrusive imagery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgac265","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]],"date-time":"2023-01-23T22:30:15Z","timestamp":1674513015000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A generative adversarial model of intrusive imagery in the human brain"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3877-3354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cody A","family":"Cushing","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, UCLA , Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexei J","family":"Dawes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RIKEN Center for Brain Science , Wako, Saitama 351-0106, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3548-9681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefan G","family":"Hofmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology, Philipps-University Marburg , 35037 Marburg, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University , Boston, MA, 02215, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hakwan","family":"Lau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RIKEN Center for Brain Science , Wako, Saitama 351-0106, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8518-132X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph E","family":"LeDoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University , New York, NY, 10012, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School , New York, NY, 10016, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Taschereau-Dumouchel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al , Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada"},{"name":"Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al , Montreal, Quebec H1N 3M5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"2024041005061762500_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf187","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic fatigue syndrome-like illness among Gulf War veterans: a population-based survey of 30,000 veterans","volume":"157","author":"Kang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"2024041005061762500_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.62.6.593","article-title":"Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication","volume":"62","author":"Kessler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"2024041005061762500_bib3","first-page":"xxix","volume-title":"Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study","author":"Kulka","year":"1990"},{"key":"2024041005061762500_bib4","volume-title":"Invisible wounds of war: psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recover","author":"Tanielian","year":"2008"},{"key":"2024041005061762500_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.36811\/ijpmh.2019.110003","article-title":"The Economic burden of PTSD. 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