{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,7]],"date-time":"2026-06-07T04:04:22Z","timestamp":1780805062275,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,22]],"date-time":"2023-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679443200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":21,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["DP210103284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP210103284"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Understanding the mechanisms which inactivate airborne viruses is a current challenge. The composition of human respiratory aerosol is poorly understood and needs to be adequately investigated for use in aerovirology studies. Here, the physicochemical properties of porcine respiratory fluid (PRF) from the trachea and lungs were investigated both in bulk solutions and in aerosols. The mass ratio of Na:K in PRF compared with cell culture media (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium, DMEM), which is frequently used in aerovirology studies, was significantly lower (\u223c2:1 vs \u223c16:1). PRF contained significantly more potassium and protein than DMEM. PRF aerosols of all samples were similarly hygroscopic to human respiratory aerosol. PRF particles could nucleate with spatially separated crystals, indicating that the protein matrix was sufficiently viscous to prevent the complete coalescence of aqueous salts prior to efflorescence. The effects of these differences in compositions on the viability of viruses are currently not well understood. The virus suspensions in aerovirology studies need to be reconsidered to adequately reflect a real-world expiration scenario.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,22]],"date-time":"2023-03-22T06:26:12Z","timestamp":1679466372000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Physicochemical characterization of porcine respiratory aerosol and considerations for future aerovirology"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Groth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000 , Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8150-2106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sadegh","family":"Niazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000 , Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirsten","family":"Spann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Immunology and Infection Control, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000 , Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Graham R","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000 , Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6066-6638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zoran","family":"Ristovski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000 , Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105730","article-title":"Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: the world should face the reality","volume":"139","author":"Morawska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2004973","article-title":"Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1","volume":"382","author":"van Doremalen","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf0521","article-title":"Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"370","author":"Prather","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabd9149","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd9149","article-title":"Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses","volume":"373","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.1505","article-title":"Effectiveness of mask wearing to control community spread of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"325","author":"Brooks","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abg6296","article-title":"Face masks effectively limit the probability of SARS-CoV-2 transmission","volume":"372","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00637-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00637-20","article-title":"Effectiveness of face masks in preventing airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"5","author":"Ueki","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115767","article-title":"The role of respiratory droplet physicochemistry in limiting and promoting the airborne transmission of human coronaviruses: a critical review","volume":"276","author":"Niazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environmental Pollution"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2109750119","article-title":"Evidence for a semisolid phase state of aerosols and droplets relevant to the airborne and surface survival of pathogens","volume":"119","author":"Huynh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170939","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2017.0939","article-title":"Physico-chemical characteristics of evaporating respiratory fluid droplets","volume":"15","author":"Vejerano","year":"2018","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9284","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpca.7b05242","article-title":"Kinetic limitation to inorganic ion diffusivity and to coalescence of inorganic inclusions in viscous liquid\u2013liquid phase-separated particles","volume":"121","author":"Fard","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Phys Chem A"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10879","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c01829","article-title":"Nanomechanics and morphology of simulated respiratory particles","volume":"56","author":"Groth","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.3390\/v14091856","article-title":"Mucin transiently sustains coronavirus infectivity through heterogenous changes in phase morphology of evaporating aerosol","volume":"14","author":"Alexander","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2200109119","article-title":"The dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 infectivity with changes in aerosol microenvironment","volume":"119","author":"Oswin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy221","article-title":"Influenza virus infectivity is retained in aerosols and droplets independent of relative humidity","volume":"218","author":"Kormuth","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1777906","article-title":"Experimental aerosol survival of SARS-CoV-2 in artificial saliva and tissue culture media at medium and high humidity","volume":"9","author":"Smither","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.1c00253","article-title":"Humidity-dependent survival of an airborne influenza A virus: practical implications for controlling airborne viruses","volume":"8","author":"Niazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol Lett"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c06197","article-title":"Susceptibility of an airborne common cold virus to relative humidity","volume":"55","author":"Niazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pgac301","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgac301","article-title":"Carbohydrate vitrification in aerosolized saliva is associated with the humidity-dependent infectious potential of airborne coronavirus","volume":"2","author":"Nieto-Caballero","year":"2023","journal-title":"PNAS Nexus"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210209","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2021.0209","article-title":"In situ measurements of human cough aerosol hygroscopicity","volume":"18","author":"Groth","year":"2021","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3243","DOI":"10.1039\/D1CC00066G","article-title":"Hygroscopic growth of simulated lung fluid aerosol particles under ambient environmental conditions","volume":"57","author":"Davies","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem Commun"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0243505","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243505","article-title":"Survival of MS2 and phi6 viruses in droplets as a function of relative humidity, pH, and salt, protein, and surfactant concentrations","volume":"15","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2212140119","article-title":"Expiratory aerosol pH is determined by indoor room trace gases and particle size","volume":"119","author":"Klein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c05777","article-title":"Expiratory aerosol pH: the overlooked driver of airborne virus inactivation","volume":"57","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2008.05.005","article-title":"A robust, portable H-TDMA for field use","volume":"39","author":"Johnson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Aerosol Sci"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7955","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-20-7955-2020","article-title":"Sea spray aerosol organic enrichment, water uptake and surface tension effects","volume":"20","author":"Cravigan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2-363-2009","article-title":"Intercomparison study of six HTDMAs: results and recommendations","volume":"2","author":"Duplissy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos Meas Tech"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2008.07.013","article-title":"Inversion of tandem differential mobility analyser (TDMA) measurements","volume":"40","author":"Gysel","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Aerosol Sci"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2126","DOI":"10.1021\/j100879a010","article-title":"Interactions in aqueous nonelectrolyte solutions. I. Solute\u2013solvent equilibria","volume":"70","author":"Stokes","year":"1966","journal-title":"J Phys Chem"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4559","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-8-4559-2008","article-title":"A thermodynamic model of mixed organic\u2013inorganic aerosols to predict activity coef\ufb01cients","volume":"8","author":"Zuend","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9155","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-9155-2011","article-title":"New and extended parameterization of the thermodynamic model AIOMFAC: calculation of activity coefficients for organic\u2013inorganic mixtures containing carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, ether, ester, alkenyl, alkyl, and aromatic functional groups","volume":"11","author":"Zuend","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-4-323-2004","article-title":"Interaction of aerosol particles composed of protein and salts with water vapor: hygroscopic growth and microstructural rearrangement","volume":"4","author":"Mikhailov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4906","DOI":"10.1039\/b815154g","article-title":"Amino acid containing amorphous calcium phosphates and the rapid transformation into apatite","volume":"19","author":"Ikawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Mater Chem"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7621","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b00333","article-title":"Correlating 3D morphology, phase state, and viscoelastic properties of individual substrate-deposited particles","volume":"91","author":"Ray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal Chem"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/0954-6111(95)90189-2","article-title":"Alveolar lavage fluid (ALF) of normal volunteer subjects: cytologic, immunocytochemical, and biochemical reference values","volume":"89","author":"Sutinen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Respir Med"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI119802","article-title":"Ion composition of airway surface liquid of patients with cystic fibrosis as compared with normal and disease-control subjects","volume":"100","author":"Knowles","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI73469","article-title":"Cystic fibrosis airway secretions exhibit mucin hyperconcentration and increased osmotic pressure","volume":"124","author":"Henderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/jmi.12309","article-title":"Segmentation of elemental EDS maps by means of multiple clustering combined with phase identification","volume":"260","author":"M\u00fcnch","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Microsc"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1165\/ajrcmb.17.1.2594","article-title":"Conductive airway surfactant: surface-tension function, biochemical composition, and possible alveolar origin","volume":"17","author":"Bernhard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b04959","article-title":"Humidity-dependent decay of viruses, but not bacteria, in aerosols and droplets follows disinfection kinetics","volume":"54","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1089\/jamp.2008.0720","article-title":"The mechanism of breath aerosol formation","volume":"22","author":"Johnson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2011.07.009","article-title":"Modality of human expired aerosol size distributions","volume":"42","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Aerosol Sci"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-3-141-2010","article-title":"Laboratory-generated primary marine aerosol via bubble-bursting and atomization","volume":"3","author":"Fuentes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos Meas Tech"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B44","article-title":"Respiratory aerosols and droplets in the transmission of infectious diseases","author":"P\u00f6hlker","year":"2021","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2092","article-title":"Contribution of sea surface carbon pool to organic matter enrichment in sea spray aerosol","volume":"7","author":"Quinn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature Geosci"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D18310","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD015289","article-title":"Unique ocean-derived particles serve as a proxy for changes in ocean chemistry","volume":"116","author":"Gaston","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Geophys Res"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5603","DOI":"10.1021\/es400416g","article-title":"Size-dependent changes in sea spray aerosol composition and properties with different seawater conditions","volume":"47","author":"Ault","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"2023072621204022900_pgad087-B48","first-page":"1837","article-title":"Turbulent gas clouds and respiratory pathogen emissions: potential implications for reducing transmission of COVID-19","volume":"323","author":"Bourouiba","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["PNAS Nexus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad087\/49589573\/pgad087.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article-pdf\/2\/3\/pgad087\/50969632\/pgad087.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article-pdf\/2\/3\/pgad087\/50969632\/pgad087.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,16]],"date-time":"2024-10-16T20:03:48Z","timestamp":1729109028000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad087\/7083186"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Vicki","family":"Grassian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad087","relation":{},"ISSN":["2752-6542"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2752-6542","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,1]]},"article-number":"pgad087"}}