{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T04:43:47Z","timestamp":1792125827913,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":13,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Women and Science Chair"},{"name":"Dauphine Foundation Chair"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007081","name":"Fondation L\u2019Or\u00e9al","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007081","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100002322","name":"Schlumberger Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Generali France"},{"name":"La Poste and Descours Family"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In most developed countries, boys underperform academically compared with girls. One possible explanation lies in boys\u2019 more negative attitudes toward school and learning. Using data from 750,000 15-year olds across 61 countries, we investigate gender gaps in attitudes toward academic effort, including students\u2019 beliefs about the importance of trying hard in school. Boys consistently report less positive attitudes than girls, regardless of socioeconomic status, family structure, or grade repetition. These gender gaps are observed in nearly all countries and are larger in more developed societies. At the individual level, attitudes toward effort are linked to academic achievement, particularly in reading. At the national level, countries with larger gender gaps in effort-related attitudes tend to have more boys among low performers and fewer boys in tertiary education, especially in the arts and humanities, but not in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields. Finally, across countries, these gaps are associated with gender differences in ability beliefs and parental support and with the strength of gender stereotypes, pointing to the role of gender norms in shaping educational attitudes. These findings suggest that cultural and psychological factors may play a key role in shaping gender disparities in education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgag316","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:01:56Z","timestamp":1791892916000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gender differences in attitudes toward academic effort and boys\u2019 underachievement: A large-scale international study"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7008-5949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clotilde","family":"Napp","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS, UMR7088 , 75016 Paris ,","place":["France"]},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Paris-Dauphine, PSL Research University , Place du Mar\u00e9chal de Lattre de Tassigny, 75016 Paris ,","place":["France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1037\/a0036620","article-title":"Gender differences in scholastic achievement: a meta-analysis","volume":"140","author":"Voyer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.34.040507.134719","article-title":"Gender inequalities in education","volume":"34","author":"Buchmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1787\/f8d7880d-en","volume-title":"Education at a glance 2019: OECD indicators","author":"OECD","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.50.3.549","article-title":"Leaving boys behind: gender disparities in high academic achievement","volume":"50","author":"Fortin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Hum Resour"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1111\/ecca.12264","article-title":"Coase lecture\u2014the glass ceiling","volume":"85","author":"Bertrand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Economica"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-013-0309-9","article-title":"Is school feminine? Implicit gender stereotyping of school as a predictor of academic achievement","volume":"69","author":"Heyder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1007\/s11199-016-0683-1","article-title":"Boys don\u2019t work? On the psychological benefits of showing low effort in high school","volume":"77","author":"Heyder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1533-8525.2005.00014.x","article-title":"Sex differences in school performance during high school: puzzling patterns and possible explanations","volume":"46","author":"Downey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sociol Q"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2011.07.004","article-title":"Do girls and boys perceive themselves as equally engaged in school? The results of an international study from 12 countries","volume":"50","author":"Lam","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Sch Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B10","volume-title":"Rise of women, the: the growing gender gap in education and what it means for American schools","author":"DiPrete","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2007.12.005","article-title":"The worker scale: developing a measure to explain gender differences in behavioral self-handicapping","volume":"42","author":"McCrea","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Res Pers"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153","article-title":"Motivational beliefs, values, and goals","volume":"53","author":"Eccles","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.2307\/2095708","article-title":"Cultural resources and school success: gender, ethnicity, and poverty groups within an urban school district","volume":"55","author":"Farkas","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am Sociol Rev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B14","first-page":"427","article-title":"Understanding gender and race differences in high school achievement in the United States","volume":"4","author":"Savas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Educ Res"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/003804070507800102","article-title":"Tracking, students\u2019 effort, and academic achievement","volume":"78","author":"Carbonaro","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sociol Educ"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1007\/s11218-020-09588-6","article-title":"Gender achievement gaps: the role of social costs to trying hard in high school","volume":"23","author":"Workman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Psychol Educ"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7757(01)00051-6","article-title":"Where the boys aren\u2019t: non-cognitive skills, returns to school and the gender gap in higher education","volume":"21","author":"Jacob","year":"2002","journal-title":"Econ Educ Rev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2006.00921.x","article-title":"Effort on homework in grades 5\u20139: development, motivational antecedents, and the association with effort on classwork","volume":"77","author":"Trautwein","year":"2006","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1080\/0305569032000159804","article-title":"Why boys achieve less at school than girls: the difference between boys\u2019 and girls\u2019 academic culture","volume":"30","author":"Houtte","year":"2004","journal-title":"Educ Stud"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1080\/01411920050030914","article-title":"Student attitudes, image and the gender gap","volume":"26","author":"Warrington","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br Educ Res J"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B21","volume-title":"Boys, girls and achievement: addressing the classroom issues","author":"Francis","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/09589230903260019","article-title":"I sat back on my computer \u2026 with a bottle of whisky next to me\u201d: constructing \u201ccool\u201d masculinity through \u201ceffortless\u201d achievement in secondary and higher education","volume":"18","author":"Jackson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Gend Stud"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1261375","article-title":"Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines","volume":"347","author":"Leslie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2017.11.006","article-title":"Messages about brilliance undermine women's interest in educational and professional opportunities","volume":"76","author":"Bian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Exp Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2676","DOI":"10.1093\/ej\/uead045","article-title":"Gender differences in reference letters: evidence from the economics job market","volume":"133","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Econ J"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroecorev.2025.105155","article-title":"Women in economics: the role of gendered references at entry in the profession","volume":"180","author":"Baltrunaite","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur Econ Rev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797617741719","article-title":"The gender-equality paradox in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education","volume":"29","author":"Stoet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-024-09872-3","article-title":"Cross-cultural patterns of gender differences in STEM: gender stratification, gender equality and gender-equality paradoxes","volume":"36","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1177\/09567976241271330","article-title":"The gender-equality paradox in intraindividual academic strengths: a cross-temporal analysis","volume":"35","author":"Balducci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B30","first-page":"18","article-title":"The STEM conundrum: sex differences in intraindividual academic strengths and the gender equality paradox across academic achievement levels","volume":"1","author":"Balducci","year":"2025","journal-title":"Intell Cogn Abil"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31063","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2008704117","article-title":"Gender stereotypes can explain the gender-equality paradox","volume":"117","author":"Breda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0001512","article-title":"The gender gap in the care economy is larger in highly developed countries: sociocultural explanations for paradoxical findings","volume":"81","author":"Block","year":"2026","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1080\/02667363.2025.2469242","article-title":"The boy paradox: exploring motivational factors in gender differences and academic achievement across ages 9\u201314 years","volume":"41","author":"Stenberg","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Pract"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1177\/17456916231202685","article-title":"A systematic review and new analyses of the gender-equality paradox","volume":"20","author":"Herlitz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000306","article-title":"Illusory gender-equality paradox, math self-concept, and frame-of-reference effects: new integrative explanations for multiple paradoxes","volume":"121","author":"Marsh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000508","article-title":"Deconstructing the gender-equality paradox","volume":"127","author":"Ilmarinen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B37","volume-title":"Educating the other: gender, power, and schooling","author":"Paechter","year":"1998"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B38","author":"Connell","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2699.6.1.101","article-title":"Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site","volume":"6","author":"Nosek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Group Dyn"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1177\/19485506231221913","article-title":"Does culture moderate gender stereotypes? Individualism predicts communal (but not agentic) prescriptions for men across 62 nations","volume":"16","author":"Kosakowska-Berezecka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soc Psychol Personal Sci"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-024-03235-x","article-title":"Towards gender harmony dataset: gender beliefs and gender stereotypes in 62 countries","volume":"11","author":"Kosakowska-Berezecka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1187\/cbe.22-12-0250","article-title":"Undergraduate lay theories of abilities: mindset, universality, and brilliance beliefs uniquely predict undergraduate educational outcomes","volume":"22","author":"Limeri","year":"2023","journal-title":"CBE Life Sci Educ"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1177\/23727322261461199","article-title":"How do young children think about ability","volume":"13","author":"Limeri","year":"2026","journal-title":"Policy Insights Behav Brain Sci"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B44","volume-title":"What's math got to do with it? How teachers and parents can transform mathematics learning and inspire success","author":"Boaler","year":"2015"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B45","volume-title":"Mindset: the new psychology of success","author":"Dweck","year":"2006"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B46","volume-title":"Mindset: the new psychology of success","author":"Dweck","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abm3689","article-title":"The stereotype that girls lack talent: a worldwide investigation","volume":"8","author":"Napp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.82.6.878","article-title":"A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition","volume":"82","author":"Fiske","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.93.5.751","article-title":"Agency and communion from the perspective of self versus others","volume":"93","author":"Abele","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1177\/0003122418762291","article-title":"The mark of a woman's record: gender and academic performance in hiring","volume":"83","author":"Quadlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am Sociol Rev"},{"key":"2026101523463632200_pgag316-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aah6524","article-title":"Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children's interests","volume":"355","author":"Bian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["PNAS Nexus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article-pdf\/5\/10\/pgag316\/71840465\/pgag316.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article-pdf\/5\/10\/pgag316\/71840465\/pgag316.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T03:46:56Z","timestamp":1792122416000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pnasnexus\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgag316\/8907486"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ronald","family":"Fischer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgag316","relation":{},"ISSN":["2752-6542"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2752-6542","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"article-number":"pgag316"}}