{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,8]],"date-time":"2026-11-08T05:22:15Z","timestamp":1794115335312,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]],"date-time":"2025-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750723200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Study Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>To develop and validate a Complete Artificial Intelligence Sleep Report system (CAISR), a system for comprehensive automated sleep analysis, including sleep staging, arousal detection, apnea identification, and limb movement analysis.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>We utilized a large diverse dataset from four cohorts (MGH, MESA, MrOS, SHHS) comprising 25,749 participants to develop CAISR. Following American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) guidelines, CAISR performs four tasks: it stages sleep into five categories (Wake, NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, REM), detects arousals, detects and classifies breathing events (Obstructive Apnea, Central Apnea, Mixed Apnea, Hypopnea, and RERA), and detects limb movements and categorizes them as periodic or isolated. We tested CAISR against multiple datasets independently annotated by multiple experts, including UPenn (69 subjects, 6 experts), BITS (98 subjects, 3 experts), and Stanford (100 subjects, three experts). Sleep staging and arousal detection were accomplished using customized deep neural networks, while breathing event detection and classification and limb movement analysis were accomplished using rule-based signal processing approaches. We quantified CAISR performance with three metrics: Cohen\u2019s Kappa, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC), and area under the precision-recall curve (AUPRC). To determine whether CAISR performed on par with human experts, we compared expert inter-rater reliability (IRR) with algorithm-expert IRR.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The CAISR model showed strong overall performance across the four tasks: sleep staging, arousal detection, apnea detection, and limb movement detection. In sleep staging, the model achieved AUROC values ranging from 0.82 to 0.97 and AUPRC values between 0.63 and 0.90 across the BITS, Stanford, and Penn datasets, indicating high classification accuracy. The Kappa agreement analysis showed that in the BITS and Stanford datasets, CAISR outperformed human experts, with non-overlapping confidence intervals indicating superiority (Kappa values around 0.7 to 0.8 for CAISR vs. experts). In the Penn dataset, the model\u2019s performance was comparable to experts, with overlapping confidence intervals suggesting non-inferiority. For arousal detection, the model maintained reliable performance, with AUROC values ranging from 0.83 to 0.94 and AUPRC values from 0.67 to 0.85, and Kappa analysis showing overlapping confidence intervals, indicating comparable performance to experts in both the BITS and Stanford datasets (Kappa values for CAISR around 0.6 to 0.75). In apnea detection, including the detection of obstructive, central, and mixed apnea, the CAISR model achieved competitive results in the BITS dataset with AUROC values between 0.81 and 0.95 and AUPRC values between 0.58 and 0.82, but in the Stanford dataset, it underperformed compared to human experts, as shown by non-overlapping confidence intervals and lower Kappa values (around 0.55 to 0.65). Finally, in limb movement detection, the model demonstrated superior performance in the BITS dataset, with AUROC values of 0.9 to 0.96 and AUPRC values between 0.75 and 0.85, and Kappa analysis indicating significantly higher reliability compared to experts (CAISR Kappa around 0.8, with non-overlapping confidence intervals). In the Stanford dataset, CAISR\u2019s performance was comparable to experts, with overlapping confidence intervals suggesting non-inferiority (Kappa values around 0.65 to 0.7). Overall, the CAISR model consistently exhibited high classification performance and reliability across tasks, often matching or surpassing expert-level performance, with particularly strong results in sleep staging and limb detection.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The CAISR model demonstrated high classification accuracy and reliability across sleep staging, arousal, apnea, and limb movement detection tasks, matching or surpassing human expert performance. Human errors and systematic biases in the annotation of micro-events during sleep, such as arousal and apnea detection, likely contributed to variability in expert performance, while the CAISR model showed more consistent results, reducing the impact of these biases and increasing overall reliability across task.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsaf134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,24]],"date-time":"2025-06-24T14:31:57Z","timestamp":1750775517000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["CAISR: achieving human-level performance in automated sleep analysis across all clinical sleep metrics"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4216-026X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samaneh","family":"Nasiri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Informatics, Emory School of Medicine , Atlanta, GA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6029-2450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Ganglberger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0269-3405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thijs","family":"Nassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Cardiovascular and Respiratory Physiology Group, University of Twente , Enschede, NL ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erik-Jan","family":"Meulenbrugge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5735-9143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valdery","family":"Moura Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manohar","family":"Ghanta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5243-368X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aditya","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , Boston, MA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katie L","family":"Stone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco , San Francisco, CA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Epidemiology and Biostatistics, California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute , San Francisco, CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magnus Ruud","family":"Kjaer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Stanford University , Palo Alto, CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Sum-Ping","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Stanford University , Palo Alto, CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6928-5310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Mignot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Stanford University , Palo Alto, CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dennis","family":"Hwang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kaiser Permanente, San Bernardino County Sleep Disorders Center. San Bernardino , CA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2329-6847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lynn Marie","family":"Trotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Emory Sleep Center, Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta, GA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5709-201X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gari D","family":"Clifford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Informatics, Emory School of Medicine , Atlanta, GA ,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta, GA ,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Umakanth","family":"Katwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School , 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