{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T01:38:54Z","timestamp":1793410734112,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765497600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Study Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Conventional sleep staging relies on 30-s epochs, potentially concealing transient sleep stage intrusion and reducing precision. Building on our previous study of mini-epochs, we investigated whether U-Sleep, an existing automatic deep learning-based sleep staging model with high performance in epochs, could be optimized to similar performance level in 5-s mini-epoch scoring, thereby enabling more detailed sleep characterization.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We created a dataset of 48\u2009000 human-scored 5-s mini-epochs from 100 polysomnographies. We compared mini-epochs to human-scored epochs before U-Sleep was optimized using transfer learning and evaluated on a test set. Model performance was assessed using F1-scores, confusion matrices, stage distributions and transition rates comparing scorings of the original U-Sleep before, and the optimized U-Sleep after transfer learning to human-scored mini-epochs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Compared to human-scored epochs, human-scored mini-epochs captured significantly more transitions (1.70\/min vs. 0.21\/min, p\u00a0&amp;lt;\u2009.001), and significantly more wake (8.4 per cent vs. 5.4 per cent), N1 (7.2 per cent vs. 5.4 per cent), and N2 (51.8 per cent vs. 40.9 per cent), less N3 (15.4 per cent vs. 25.2 per cent), and REM sleep (16.7 per cent vs. 23.0 per cent) (all p\u00a0&amp;lt;\u2009.001). Optimizing U-Sleep improved its performance significantly from F1\u2009=\u20090.74 to F1\u2009=\u20090.81 (p\u00a0&amp;lt;\u2009.05) and gave increased transition rates in the test set (original U-Sleep: 1.06\/min, optimized U-Sleep: 1.34\/min, human-scored mini-epochs: 1.70\/min). Stage distributions did not differ between optimized U-Sleep\u2019s scorings and human-scored mini-epochs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>After optimization, U-Sleep performance in mini-epochs matched the high performance levels previously reported in both human and automated 30-s epoch scoring. This demonstrates the feasibility of precise, automated high-resolution sleep staging. Future work should include external validation and application to full-night recordings.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>Statement of Significance Conventional 30-s epochs limit temporal resolution in sleep staging and may conceal transient intrusions of wake or sleep stages. However, no validated methods are available for high-resolution scoring. In this study, we trained and validated the state-of-the-art deep learning model U-Sleep for accurate automatic 5-s mini-epoch scoring using a large dataset of human-scored mini-epochs. The optimized model achieved a high performance, matching levels from previously reported automatic and human epoch scoring. Compared to epoch scoring, mini-epochs captured significantly more stage transitions, supporting their ability to uncover sleep dynamics that are otherwise lost. Our findings show the potential of high-resolution sleep staging for more detailed characterization of sleep architecture and demonstrate the feasibility of precise, automatic mini-epoch scoring.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsaf393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]],"date-time":"2025-12-11T13:15:37Z","timestamp":1765458937000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Optimizing automated sleep stage scoring of 5-s mini-epochs: a transfer learning study"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"49","author":[{"given":"Louise Fr\u00f8strup","family":"Follin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]},{"name":"Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4225-3359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julie Anja Engelhard","family":"Christensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janita","family":"Vevelstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6796-7177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hilde T","family":"Juvodden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rannveig","family":"Viste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Berit Hjelde","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rare Disorders, Norwegian Centre of Expertise for Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Hypersomnias (NevSom), Oslo University Hospital , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mathias","family":"Perslev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Rigshospitalet , Copenhagen ,","place":["Denmark"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Kaufmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Precision Psychiatry, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo , Oslo ,","place":["Norway"]},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of T\u00fcbingen , T\u00fcbingen ,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site T\u00fcbingen , T\u00fcbingen ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6881-9766","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander Neergaard","family":"Zahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark , Kgs. 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