{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T22:12:31Z","timestamp":1774390351365,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Implicit social cognition, also known as implicit bias, may impact social work practice. Because social workers commonly work with people with disabilities, it is important to understand more about social service professionals\u2019 attitudes about physical disability. By using descriptive and inferential statistical tests to quantitatively analyze secondary 2023 data from social service professionals, including social workers and counselors (n = 5,167), this study found that 70.3 percent of respondents reported having no explicit preference for people with or without physical disabilities, 23.7 percent reported preferring people without physical disabilities explicitly, and 6.0 percent reported preferring people with physical disabilities explicitly. For implicit attitudes, most participants had implicit preference for people without physical disabilities (77.8 percent), 13.7 percent had no implicit preference for people with or without physical disabilities, and 8.5 percent implicitly preferred people with physical disabilities. There was a statistically significant relationship between explicit and implicit attitudes, with most people having discordant explicit and implicit attitudes, often with low levels of explicit bias and high levels of implicit bias. This study also found age, gender, disability, having friends\/family with disabilities, education, and political orientation correlated with explicit and implicit disability attitudes. The article ends with a discussion of educational interventions to reduce disability-related implicit bias.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/sw\/swag006","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T12:31:58Z","timestamp":1768653118000},"page":"129-138","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hidden Bias: Social Service Professionals\u2019 Attitudes toward Physical Disability"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"71","author":[{"given":"Aleksa","family":"Owen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Work, University of Nevada Aleksa Owen, PhD, LMSW, is assistant professor, , Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, Building AB, Room 523A, Reno, NV 89557, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carli","family":"Friedman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Council on Quality and Leadership Carli Friedman, PhD, is director of research, , Towson, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B1","author":"ADA National Network","year":"."},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1037\/rep0000493","article-title":"Implicit bias toward people with disability: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"68","author":"Antonopoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/00220973.1995.9943797","article-title":"Multiple regression approach to analyzing contingency tables: Post hoc and planned comparison procedures","volume":"64","author":"Beasley","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2020.100941","article-title":"A call to action: Preparing a disability-competent health care workforce","volume":"13","author":"Bowen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Disability and Health Journal"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B5","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B6","volume-title":"Nothing about us without us: Disability oppression and empowerment","author":"Charlton","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/10437797.2015.1012939","article-title":"Development and validation of the Social Worker\u2019s Attitudes Toward Disability Scale","volume":"51","author":"Cheatham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Social Work Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B8","first-page":"385","volume-title":"Everyday women\u2019s and gender studies","author":"Chess","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1177\/00110000231186824","article-title":"Psychotherapy experiences of U.S. adults with physical disabilities: Recommendations for affirmative practice","volume":"51","author":"Conner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Counseling Psychologist"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B10","author":"Council on Social Work Education","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00328","article-title":"Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity","volume":"12","author":"Cunningham","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/laws5030035","article-title":"Disability in a human rights context","volume":"5","author":"Degener","year":"2016","journal-title":"Laws"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fresc.2023.1048432","article-title":"The importance of disability representation to address implicit bias in the workplace","volume":"4","author":"Derbyshire","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2012.06.003","article-title":"Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention","volume":"48","author":"Devine","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1080\/1536710X.2015.989559","article-title":"Practice with persons with autism spectrum disorders: Predictors of self-efficacy among social work students","volume":"14","author":"Dinecola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Social Work in Disability & Rehabilitation"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1080\/02615479.2012.644945","article-title":"Disability culture and cultural competency in social work","volume":"31","author":"Dupr\u00e9","year":"2012","journal-title":"Social Work Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034369","article-title":"Tracking subtle stereotypes of children with trisomy 21: From facial-feature-based to implicit stereotyping","volume":"7","author":"Enea-Drapeau","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLOS One"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.15353\/cjds.v8i3.509","article-title":"Mapping ableism: A two-dimensional model of explicit and implicit disability attitudes","volume":"8","author":"Friedman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Disability Studies"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2023.101482","article-title":"Explicit and implicit: Ableism of disability professionals","volume":"16","author":"Friedman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Disability and Health Journal"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/15265161.2021.1958652","article-title":"Disability cultural competence for all as a model","volume":"21","author":"Garland-Thomson","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Journal of Bioethics"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1921\/jpts.v17i2.1175","article-title":"Disability competency in social work education: Tools for practice teaching","volume":"17","author":"Goulden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Practice Teaching and Learning"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.2307\/20439056","article-title":"Implicit bias: Scientific foundations","volume":"94","author":"Greenwald","year":"2006","journal-title":"California Law Review"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.6.1464","article-title":"Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test","volume":"74","author":"Greenwald","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.85.2.197","article-title":"Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm","volume":"85","author":"Greenwald","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015575","article-title":"Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity","volume":"97","author":"Greenwald","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B26","author":"Jones","year":"2009"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1080\/02615479.2019.1699526","article-title":"Uncovering issues of ableism in social work education: A disability needs assessment","volume":"39","author":"Kattari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Social Work Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2017.1344175","article-title":"Applying a social model of disability across the life span","volume":"27","author":"Kattari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1080\/10437797.2019.1661899","article-title":"Making disability visible in social work education","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Social Work Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1080\/08841233.2010.497128","article-title":"Preparation of social workers to support people with developmental disabilities","volume":"30","author":"Laws","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Teaching in Social Work"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agy012","article-title":"Evaluating within-person change in implicit measures of alcohol associations: Increases in alcohol associations predict increases in drinking risk and vice versa","volume":"53","author":"Lindgren","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alcohol and Alcoholism"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B32","volume-title":"Claiming disability: Knowledge and identity","author":"Linton","year":"1998"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lana.2023.100650","article-title":"Structural ableism in public health and healthcare: A definition and conceptual framework","volume":"30","author":"Lundberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"The Lancet Regional Health\u2014Americas"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B34","first-page":"19","volume-title":"Controversies and disputes in disability and rehabilitation","author":"Mackelprang","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1037\/rep0000235","article-title":"Employers\u2019 implicit attitudes about the competence of people who are blind","volume":"63","author":"McDonnall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2015.05.007","article-title":"A perinatal health framework for women with physical disabilities","volume":"8","author":"Mitra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Disability and Health Journal"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18061\/dsq.v29i4.979","article-title":"Disability and identity","volume":"29","author":"Murugami","year":"2009","journal-title":"Disability Studies Quarterly"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B38","author":"National Association of Social Workers","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1027\/1618-3169.54.1.14","article-title":"A multitrait-multimethod validation of the Implicit Association Test","volume":"54","author":"Nosek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1080\/10463280701489053","article-title":"Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes","volume":"18","author":"Nosek","year":"2007","journal-title":"European Review of Social Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1080\/1536710X.2017.1392394","article-title":"Assessment of integration of disability content into social work education","volume":"16","author":"Ogden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Social Work in Disability & Rehabilitation"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.08.001","article-title":"Implicit bias reflects systemic racism","volume":"25","author":"Payne","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1037\/0090-5550.51.3.202","article-title":"The development and psychometric validation of the Disability Attitude Implicit Association Test","volume":"51","author":"Pruett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1080\/02615479.2012.644946","article-title":"Increasingly strange bedfellows? An examination of the inclusion of disability issues in university- and agency-based social work education in a Welsh context","volume":"31","author":"Rees","year":"2012","journal-title":"Social Work Education"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.3109\/09638288.2014.948133","article-title":"How to support the needs of mothers with physical disabilities?","volume":"37","author":"Shpigelman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Disability and Rehabilitation"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3998\/mpub.309723","volume-title":"Disability theory","author":"Siebers","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1093\/sw\/swac045","article-title":"Beyond ramps, curb cuts, and captions: A call for disability justice in social work [Commentary]","volume":"68","author":"Slayter","year":"2023","journal-title":"Social Work"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020079","article-title":"Disaster case management and individuals with disabilities","volume":"55","author":"Stough","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B49","author":"U.S. Census","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1037\/rep0000317","article-title":"Explicit and implicit disability attitudes of healthcare providers","volume":"65","author":"VanPuymbrouck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0137902","article-title":"Implicit attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: Their relationship with explicit attitudes, social distance, emotions and contact","volume":"10","author":"Wilson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLOS One"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.107.1.101","article-title":"A model of dual attitudes","volume":"107","author":"Wilson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/soc2030075","article-title":"Expanding ableism: Taking down the ghettoization of impact of disability studies scholars","volume":"2","author":"Wolbring","year":"2012","journal-title":"Societies"},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B54","author":"World Health Organization","year":"."},{"key":"2026032416005332300_swag006-B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5334\/jopd.ac","article-title":"Psychology data from the Race Implicit Association Test on the Project Implicit Demo website","volume":"2","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Open Psychology Data"}],"container-title":["Social Work"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/sw\/article-pdf\/71\/2\/129\/67175137\/swag006.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/sw\/article-pdf\/71\/2\/129\/67175137\/swag006.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T20:01:00Z","timestamp":1774382460000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/sw\/article\/71\/2\/129\/8502186"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/sw\/swag006","relation":{},"ISSN":["0037-8046","1545-6846"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0037-8046","type":"print"},{"value":"1545-6846","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]]}}}