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PFAS are found in many consumer products and are a major source of water and soil contamination. This study investigated the effects of an environmentally relevant PFAS mixture (perfluorooctanoic acid [PFOA], perfluorooctanesulfonic acid [PFOS], perfluorohexanesulfonic acid [PFHxS]) on the transcriptome and function of human granulosa cells (hGCs). Primary hGCs were harvested from follicular aspirates of healthy, reproductive-age women who were undergoing oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization. Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC\/MS-MS) was performed to identify PFAS compounds in pure follicular fluid. Cells were cultured with vehicle control or a PFAS mixture (2\u2009nM PFHxS, 7\u2009nM PFOA, 10\u2009nM PFOS) for 96\u2009h. Analyses of cell proliferation\/apoptosis, steroidogenesis, and gene expression were measured via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays\/immunofluorescence, ELISA\/western blotting, and RNA sequencing\/bioinformatics, respectively. PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS were detected in 100% of follicle fluid samples. Increased cell proliferation was observed in hGCs treated with the PFAS mixture with no impacts on cellular apoptosis. The PFAS mixture also altered steroid hormone synthesis, increasing both follicle-stimulating hormone-stimulated and basal progesterone secretion and concomitant upregulation of STAR protein. RNA sequencing revealed inherent differences in transcriptomic profiles in hGCs after PFAS exposure. This study demonstrates functional and transcriptomic changes in hGCs after exposure to a PFAS mixture, improving our knowledge about the impacts of PFAS exposures and female reproductive health. These findings suggest that PFAS compounds can disrupt normal granulosa cell function with possible long-term consequences on overall reproductive health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfae049","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]],"date-time":"2024-04-10T02:51:08Z","timestamp":1712717468000},"page":"57-69","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["An environmentally relevant mixture of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) impacts proliferation, steroid hormone synthesis, and gene transcription in primary human granulosa cells"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"200","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8843-7917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kendra L","family":"Clark","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System , Omaha, Nebraska 68105,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamta","family":"Shukla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jitu W","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System , Omaha, Nebraska 68105,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Gustin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Heartland Center for Reproductive Medicine , Omaha, Nebraska 68138,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5135-9596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M Jordan","family":"Rowley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3468-4079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John S","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska 68198,","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System , Omaha, Nebraska 68105,","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025041100303752400_kfae049-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2015.02.001","article-title":"Perfluoroalkyl substances and ovarian hormone concentrations in naturally cycling women","volume":"103","author":"Barrett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fertil. 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