{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T03:03:28Z","timestamp":1789873408082,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Persistent uncertainty regarding health risks associated with contaminated drinking water at Camp Lejeune reflects a broader limitation in toxicology: the difficulty of evaluating complex chemical mixtures in genetically heterogeneous populations. Historical assessments have relied on single-chemical paradigms, assumptions of dose additivity, and population-average susceptibility. These approaches are not well aligned with exposures involving multiple volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that share metabolic pathways and generate reactive intermediates. This Forum article advances the position that artificial intelligence (AI)\u2013enabled computational toxicology can strengthen mixture risk assessment by integrating toxicokinetic, toxicodynamic, and toxicogenomic data into mechanistically coherent, testable models. Using the Camp Lejeune VOC mixture\u2014trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, benzene, and vinyl chloride\u2014as a case study, we illustrate how AI-augmented approaches can identify plausible interaction mechanisms, quantify genotype-dependent variability in internal dose, and generate probabilistic estimates of risk. We argue that the principal unresolved issue at Camp Lejeune is whether chronic low-level exposure to interacting mixtures disproportionately affected susceptible subpopulations. AI-driven approaches provide a tractable framework to address this question and to clarify the interface between mechanistic toxicology and public health decision-making.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfag066","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,31]],"date-time":"2026-05-31T11:37:02Z","timestamp":1780227422000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Artificial intelligence\u2013augmented mixture toxicology: reframing unresolved risk at Camp Lejeune"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"209","author":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Pressman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Maine , Orono, ME 04469,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A Wallace","family":"Hayes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Public Health, University of South Florida , Tampa, FL 33620,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-002-0407-4","article-title":"The cytochrome P450 isoenzyme CYP2E1 in the biological processing of industrial chemicals: consequences for occupational and environmental medicine","volume":"76","author":"Bolt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B2","first-page":"852384","article-title":"Cutting-edge PBPK models and analyses: providing the basis for future modeling efforts","author":"Caldwell","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Toxicol"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e96580","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0096580","article-title":"Quantifying synergy: a systematic review of mixture toxicity studies","volume":"9","author":"Cedergreen","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/18.1.31","article-title":"Mutagenicity of vinyl chloride and its metabolites","volume":"18","author":"Chiang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfae084","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to a phthalate mixture alters cytokine profiles","volume":"201","author":"Fletcher","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicological Sciences"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1177\/1091581820905088","article-title":"Alternatives to animal use in risk assessment of mixtures","volume":"39","author":"Hayes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Toxicol"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2012.06.009","article-title":"Toxic effects of pesticide mixtures at a molecular level","volume":"307","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Toxicology"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12050305","article-title":"Evaluation of the interaction-based hazard index formula using data on four trihalomethanes from U.S. EPA\u2019s multiple-purpose design study","volume":"12","author":"Hertzberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics7010015","article-title":"Computational approaches to predict mixture toxicity","volume":"7","author":"Kar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-023-03666-2","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in toxicology","volume":"98","author":"Kleinstreuer","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch Toxicol"},{"key":"2026070607260824100_kfag066-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2011.03.010","article-title":"Risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals: a WHO\/IPCS framework","volume":"60","author":"Meek","year":"2011","journal-title":"Regulatory. 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