{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T05:51:47Z","timestamp":1790833907936,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]],"date-time":"2021-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623196800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1173572"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1173572"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Department for International Development","award":["K012126\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K012126\/1"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"DELTAS Africa Initiative","award":["DEL-15\u2013010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEL-15\u2013010"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Understanding the human malaria infectious reservoir is important for elimination initiatives. Here, we implemented mosquito membrane feeding experiments to prepare for larger studies to quantify the transmission potential and relative contribution of the human infectious reservoir.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Patients with clinical malaria attending four health facilities with at least 16 Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes per \u03bcL were recruited during the 2018 transmission season. Infectiousness to mosquitoes was assessed by direct membrane feeding assay (DMFA). We compared our results with a Bayesian predictive model to investigate the relationship between infectiousness and gametocyte density and explore the impact of fever on gametocyte infectivity.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>A total of 3177 suspected malaria cases were screened; 43.3% (1376) had microscopically patent P. falciparum parasites and 3.6% (114) of them had gametocytes. Out of 68 DMFAs, 38 (55.9%) resulted in at least one infected mosquito, with a total of 15.4% (1178\/7667) of mosquitoes infected with 1\u2013475 oocysts per gut. The relationship between mosquito infection prevalence and gametocytaemia was similar to other African settings and negatively associated with fever (OR: 0.188, 95% CI 0.0603 to 0.585, p=0.0039).<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Among symptomatic malaria patients, fever is strongly associated with transmission failure. Future studies can use DMFA to better understand the human malaria reservoir in settings of low endemicity in The Gambia and inform malaria elimination initiatives.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trab087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,21]],"date-time":"2021-05-21T19:14:02Z","timestamp":1621624442000},"page":"1462-1467","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Infectivity of patent <i>Plasmodium falciparum<\/i> gametocyte carriers to mosquitoes: establishing capacity to investigate the infectious reservoir of malaria in a low-transmission setting in The Gambia"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"115","author":[{"given":"Abdullahi","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"},{"name":"Global Health Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Doornstraat 331, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harouna M","family":"Soumare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammed M","family":"Camara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lamin","family":"Jadama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pa Modou","family":"Gaye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haddy","family":"Bittaye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Bradley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC International Statistics and Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane","family":"Achan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teun","family":"Bousema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Umberto","family":"D'Alessandro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, PO Box 273, Banjul, The Gambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Drakeley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9091-5612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Moreno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]},"reference":[{"issue":"7572","key":"2021120506553800100_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15535","article-title":"The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015","volume":"526","author":"Bhatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib2","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2019","author":"WHO","year":"2019"},{"issue":"11","key":"2021120506553800100_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1002456","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002456","article-title":"malERA: an updated research agenda for malaria elimination and eradication","volume":"14","author":"Rabinovich","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.34463","article-title":"Predicting the likelihood and intensity of mosquito infection from sex specific Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte density","volume":"7","author":"Bradley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120506553800100_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00051-10","article-title":"Epidemiology and infectivity of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax gametocytes in relation to malaria control and elimination","volume":"24","author":"Bousema","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"issue":"7195","key":"2021120506553800100_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06954","article-title":"Sex ratio adjustment and kin discrimination in malaria parasites","volume":"453","author":"Reece","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021120506553800100_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2018.12.001","article-title":"Gametocyte sex ratio: the key to understanding Plasmodium falciparum transmission?","volume":"35","author":"Tadesse","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"3-4","key":"2021120506553800100_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2010.09.008","article-title":"Human immune responses that reduce the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in African populations","volume":"41","author":"Bousema","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021120506553800100_bib9","first-page":"555","article-title":"Cytokine-mediated inactivation of malarial gametocytes is dependent on the presence of white blood cells and involves reactive nitrogen intermediates","volume":"78","author":"Naotunne","year":"1993","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"issue":"52","key":"2021120506553800100_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.08.073","article-title":"Transmission blocking malaria vaccines: assays and candidates in clinical development","volume":"33","author":"Sauerwein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1515-z","article-title":"An inter-laboratory comparison of standard membrane-feeding assays for evaluation of malaria transmission-blocking vaccines","volume":"15","author":"Miura","year":"2016","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"8","key":"2021120506553800100_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42821","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0042821","article-title":"Mosquito feeding assays to determine the infectiousness of naturally infected Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriers","volume":"7","author":"Bousema","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib13","article-title":"P. falciparum gametocyte density and infectivity in peripheral blood and skin tissue of naturally infected parasite carriers in Burkina Faso","author":"Meibalan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00246","article-title":"Uptake of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes during mosquito bloodmeal by direct and membrane feeding","volume":"11","author":"Talman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"issue":"9","key":"2021120506553800100_bib15","first-page":"553","article-title":"Sup\u00e9riorit\u00e9 des preparations de scarification du derme sur les pr\u00e9parations de sang p\u00e9riph\u00e9rique pour le diagnostic de malaria","author":"Van Den Berghe","year":"1952","journal-title":"An Inst Med Trop"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021120506553800100_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(80)90189-3","article-title":"Studies on the use of a membrane feeding technique for infecting Anopheles gambiae with Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"74","author":"Graves","year":"1980","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120506553800100_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.77.242","article-title":"Effects of anticoagulants on Plasmodium vivax oocyst development in Anopheles albimanus mosquitoes","volume":"77","author":"Solarte","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120506553800100_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2012.11.004","article-title":"Can field-based mosquito feeding assays be used for evaluating transmission-blocking interventions?","volume":"29","author":"Bousema","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"9649","key":"2021120506553800100_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61654-2","article-title":"Changes in malaria indices between 1999 and 2007 in The Gambia: a retrospective analysis","volume":"372","author":"Ceesay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"11","key":"2021120506553800100_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0187059","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187059","article-title":"Residual malaria transmission dynamics varies across The Gambia despite high coverage of control interventions","volume":"12","author":"Mwesigwa","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120506553800100_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-2929-1","article-title":"Field performance of the malaria highly sensitive rapid diagnostic test in a setting of varying malaria transmission","volume":"18","author":"Mwesigwa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2241","article-title":"Factors determining the occurrence of submicroscopic malaria infections and their relevance for control","volume":"3","author":"Okell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120506553800100_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09441-1","article-title":"The temporal dynamics and infectiousness of subpatent Plasmodium falciparum infections in relation to parasite density","volume":"10","author":"Slater","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"16","key":"2021120506553800100_bib24","first-page":"1","article-title":"A protocol for membrane feeding assays to determine the infectiousness of P. falciparum naturally infected individuals to Anopheles gambiae","volume":"4","author":"Ou\u00e9draogo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Malar World J"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120506553800100_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(00)90056-7","article-title":"Estimates of the infectious reservoir of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in The Gambia and in Tanzania","volume":"94","author":"Drakeley","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120506553800100_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.1999.00361.x","article-title":"Host haematological factors influencing the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes to Anopheles gambiae s.s. mosquitoes","volume":"4","author":"Drakeley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021120506553800100_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0402","article-title":"Infectiousness of the human population to Anopheles arabiensis by direct skin feeding in an area hypoendemic for malaria in Senegal","volume":"92","author":"Gaye","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"12","key":"2021120506553800100_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8410","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008410","article-title":"Substantial contribution of submicroscopical Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriage to the infectious reservoir in an area of seasonal transmission","volume":"4","author":"Ouedraogo","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507829","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1507829","article-title":"Parasitological indices of malaria transmission in children under fifteen years in two ecoepidemiological zones in southwestern Burkina Faso","volume":"2017","author":"Hien","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Trop Med"},{"issue":"10","key":"2021120506553800100_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy060","article-title":"Contribution to malaria transmission of symptomatic and asymptomatic parasite carriers in Cambodia","volume":"217","author":"Vantaux","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-016-0621-7","article-title":"Gametocyte carriage in uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria following treatment with artemisinin combination therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data","volume":"14","author":"WWARN Gametocyte Study Group","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120506553800100_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22573-7","article-title":"Higher gametocyte production and mosquito infectivity in chronic compared to incident Plasmodium falciparum infections","volume":"12","author":"Barry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120506553800100_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01270-4","article-title":"Examining the human infectious reservoir for Plasmodium falciparum malaria in areas of differing transmission intensity","volume":"8","author":"Goncalves","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"2021120506553800100_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00626","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.00626","article-title":"Predicting mosquito infection from Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte density and estimating the reservoir of infection","volume":"2","author":"Churcher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"7","key":"2021120506553800100_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.04.004","article-title":"Assessing the infectious reservoir of falciparum malaria: past and future","volume":"31","author":"Stone","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120506553800100_bib36","first-page":"310","article-title":"Mosquito direct membrane feeding assay: overcome the field constraints and adapt the method for the evaluation of malaria transmission-blocking interventions","volume":"97","author":"Da","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120506553800100_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03725-y","article-title":"Maintaining Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte infectivity during blood collection and transport for mosquito feeding assays in the field","volume":"20","author":"Soumare","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"9","key":"2021120506553800100_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e030598","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-030598","article-title":"Investigating the impact of enhanced community case management and monthly screening and treatment on the transmissibility of malaria infections in Burkina Faso: study protocol for a cluster-randomised trial","volume":"9","author":"Collins","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"}],"container-title":["Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article-pdf\/115\/12\/1462\/41470317\/trab087.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article-pdf\/115\/12\/1462\/41470317\/trab087.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,5]],"date-time":"2021-12-05T06:56:28Z","timestamp":1638687388000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article\/115\/12\/1462\/6295667"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,2]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trab087","relation":{},"ISSN":["0035-9203","1878-3503"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0035-9203","type":"print"},{"value":"1878-3503","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,9]]}}}