{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T13:20:06Z","timestamp":1783430406786,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/R008264\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R008264\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Bipindi is a historic focus of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). With the number of cases declining to near-elimination levels, understanding the current entomological risk is crucial to guiding elimination strategies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Two entomological surveys in four historical sentinel villages used pyramidal traps to capture tsetse flies. Dissected midguts were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for trypanosome infection. Blood meal origins were identified using cytochrome B gene heteroduplex analysis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Glossina palpalis palpalis was accounted for 99.0% of 708 captured tsetse flies. Apparent density was significantly higher in the dry season (2.11) than in the rainy season (0.89) (P &amp;lt; .0001). Blood meal analysis revealed that these flies fed on pigs (25.0%), humans (16.7%), dogs (12.5%) and goats (8.3%). PCR-based analysis of 371 flies detected Trypanosoma congolense (16.4%), Trypanozoon spp. (8.1%) and Trypanosoma vivax (2.7%). No Trypanosoma brucei gambiense was found, suggesting no transmission risk, despite high vector competence.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although no evidence of T. b. gambiense transmission was found in this study, the presence of competent tsetse flies represents a potential danger that could jeopardize current control efforts, underscoring the need for sustained integrated surveillance and vector control to achieve elimination.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trag044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T11:37:15Z","timestamp":1774957035000},"page":"794-801","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Risk of transmission of sleeping sickness in the four historical epicentre villages of the Bipindi focus, Cameroon"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"120","author":[{"given":"Guy R","family":"Njitchouang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research and Development Foundation (TREND Foundation) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeanne C","family":"Sondi Dissake","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research and Development Foundation (TREND Foundation) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]},{"name":"Higher Institute for Scientific and Medical Research (ISM) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]},{"name":"Parasitology and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaound\u00e9 I , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurentine","family":"Sumo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research and Development Foundation (TREND Foundation) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]},{"name":"Faculty of Science, University of Ebolowa Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, , Ebolowa ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5617-5526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Domche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Higher Institute for Scientific and Medical Research (ISM) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]},{"name":"Parasitology and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaound\u00e9 I , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alphonse","family":"Acho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Programme for Human African Trypanosomiasis Control (PNLTHA), Ministry of Public Health , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4496-6048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugues C","family":"Nana Djeunga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Research and Development Foundation (TREND Foundation) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Kamgno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Higher Institute for Scientific and Medical Research (ISM) , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaound\u00e9 1 Department of Public Health, , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Flobert","family":"Njiokou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Parasitology and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaound\u00e9 I , Yaound\u00e9 ,","place":["Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e55","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050055","article-title":"Eliminating human African trypanosomiasis: where do we stand and what comes next?","volume":"5","author":"Simarro","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib2","volume-title":"Sleeping Sickness: a Review of Recent Research","author":"Bruce","year":"1915"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Studien \u00fcber die entwicklung der Trypanosomen in der Tse-tsefliege","volume":"64","author":"Kleine","year":"1909","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.13.126474","article-title":"Elimination of sleeping sickness hindered by difficult diagnosis","volume":"91","author":"Lejon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib5","volume-title":"The Trypanosomes of Mammals: a Zoological Monograph","author":"Hoare","year":"1972"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2009.10.008","article-title":"Tripartite interactions between tsetse flies, Sodalis glossinidius and trypanosomes\u2014An epidemiological approach in two historical human African trypanosomiasis foci in Cameroon","volume":"10","author":"Farikou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-193","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variations relevant to tsetse control in the Bipindi focus of southern Cameroon","volume":"6","author":"Tchouomene-Labou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib8","volume-title":"Les Glossines Vectrices de la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine","author":"Laveissi\u00e8re","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2010.00936.x","article-title":"A new transmission risk index for human African trypanosomiasis and its application in the identification of sites of high transmission of sleeping sickness in the Fontem focus of southwest Cameroon","volume":"25","author":"Njitchouang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1007","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001007","article-title":"The Human African Trypanosomiasis Control and Surveillance Programme of the World Health Organization 2000-2009","volume":"5","author":"Simarro","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0010047","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010047","article-title":"The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020","volume":"16","author":"Franco","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib12","first-page":"313","article-title":"L\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9miologie de la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine: une histoire multifactorielle complexe","volume":"61","author":"Cattand","year":"2001","journal-title":"M\u00e9decine Tropicale"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib13","first-page":"S35","article-title":"Modalit\u00e9s de la transmission de la maladie du sommeil dans le foyer de Bipindi, en zone foresti\u00e8re du Sud Cameroun","volume":"60","author":"Gr\u00e9baut","year":"2000","journal-title":"M\u00e9decine Tropicale"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib14","first-page":"377","article-title":"Recherche des facteurs de risque de la trypanosomose humaine africaine dans le foyer de Bipindi au Cameroun","volume":"61","author":"Gr\u00e9baut","year":"2001","journal-title":"M\u00e9decine Tropicale"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib15","first-page":"232","article-title":"Spatial and temporal patterns of human African trypanosomosis (HAT) transmission risk in the Bipindi focus, in the forest zone of southern Cameroon","volume":"9","author":"Gr\u00e9baut","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2010171061","article-title":"Domestic animals as potential reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in sleeping sickness foci in Cameroon","volume":"17","author":"Njiokou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib17","first-page":"61","article-title":"The pyramidal trap for collecting and controlling tsetse flies (Diptera: glossinidae). Comparative trials and description of new collecting technics","volume":"37","author":"Gouteux","year":"1986","journal-title":"Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib18","volume-title":"Organisation Mondiale de la Sant\u00e9. Manuel de lutte Contre la Mouche Ts\u00e9ts\u00e9","year":"1982"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00161-8","article-title":"Detection and identification of trypanosoma of African livestock through a single PCR based on internal transcribed spacer 1 of rDNA","volume":"31","author":"Desquesnes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1156-z","article-title":"Trypanosome infection rates in tsetse flies in the \u201csilent\u201d sleeping sickness focus of Bafia in the Centre Region in Cameroon","volume":"8","author":"Simo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1003686","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003686","article-title":"The TgsGP gene is essential for resistance to human serum in Trypanosoma brucei gambiense","volume":"9","author":"Capewell","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04192-1","article-title":"Trypanosome infections in naturally infected horses and donkeys of three active sleeping sickness foci in the south of Chad","volume":"13","author":"Vourchakb\u00e9","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(98)00185-6","article-title":"Multiplex amplification of mitochondrial DNA for human and species identification in forensic evaluation","volume":"99","author":"Bataille","year":"1999","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2915.1999.00193.x","article-title":"Identification of bloodmeals in haematophagous Diptera by cytochrome B heteroduplex analysis","volume":"13","author":"Boakye","year":"1999","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2007.09.005","article-title":"Tsetse fly host preference from sleeping sickness foci in Cameroon: epidemiological implications","volume":"8","author":"Simo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"2026070709063077600_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20994","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-48465-y","article-title":"Trypanosome infection in tsetse flies and cattle in the Campo sleeping sickness focus of South Cameroon","volume":"13","author":"Fotso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"}],"container-title":["Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article-pdf\/120\/7\/794\/68178932\/trag044.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article-pdf\/120\/7\/794\/68178932\/trag044.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T13:11:05Z","timestamp":1783429865000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/article\/120\/7\/794\/8664022"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trag044","relation":{},"ISSN":["0035-9203","1878-3503"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0035-9203","type":"print"},{"value":"1878-3503","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]]}}}