{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T09:15:21Z","timestamp":1788340521440,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784764800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020832","name":"American Association of Biological Anthropologists","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020832","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007015","name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"John D. MacArthur Professorship Chair"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Hematophagous terrestrial leeches are common in rainforest habitats and widely regarded as pests. Despite limited research, circumstantial evidence raises the possibility that, beyond being an annoyance, terrestrial leeches could potentially transmit diseases.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We explored this possibility using multiple approaches. First, we reviewed published literature to synthesize knowledge related to disease transmission by leeches. Second, we collected terrestrial leeches (genus Haemadipsa) from human-occupied rainforests in Peninsular Malaysia and applied metagenomic methods for virus discovery to their anterior segments. Finally, we conducted interviews to probe local knowledge and behavior related to leeches, testing whether cultures may encode information that recognizes and helps to prevent vector-borne disease transmission.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Results indicate that terrestrial leeches are potential disease vectors, particularly via mechanical vector-borne transmission stimulated by human removal techniques. Supporting this, we identified four novel viruses within leeches, three of which are distantly related to medically important animal and human viruses which could potentially be transmitted among animal species, including humans. However, ethno-etiological evidence suggests that local Indigenous cultures do not recognize land leeches as disease vectors or promote behaviors likely to reduce transmission, suggesting knowledge may not encompass difficult-to-observe vectors.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We conclude that disease transmission by terrestrial leeches is plausible and merits experimental study.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>Accession numbers: PX094876, PX118495, PX118496, PX118497, PX118498, PX118499<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trag077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T08:43:16Z","timestamp":1784796196000},"page":"958-968","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Ethno-etiology meets virology: land leeches (family:\n                    <i>Haemadipsidae<\/i>\n                    ) as potential disease vectors"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"120","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0634-9233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas S","family":"Kraft","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, University of Utah , 260 S Central Campus Dr, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5016-4423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vivek V","family":"Venkataraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary , 2500 University Dr. N.W.. Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 ,","place":["Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5661-527X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Gurven","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara , HSSB 2001, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Nazip","family":"Suratman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA , Blok C, Kompleks Sains 2, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan ,","place":["Malaysia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3962-4913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tony L","family":"Goldberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison , 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706 ,","place":["United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1136\/jrnms-19-105a","article-title":"The land-leech in Ceylon","volume":"19","author":"Coulter","year":"1933","journal-title":"J R Nav Med Serv"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib2","volume-title":"Leeches (Hirudinea): Their Structure, Physiology, Ecology and Embryology","author":"Mann","year":"1962"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib3","first-page":"318","article-title":"Leeches in the extreme: morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations to inhospitable habitats","volume":"12","author":"Phillips","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol: Parasites Wildlife"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.105.4.373","article-title":"The leech as a potential virus reservoir","volume":"105","author":"Shope","year":"1957","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1608\/FRJ-4.1.417","article-title":"Medicinal leeches: historical use, ecology, genetics and conservation","volume":"4","author":"Elliott","year":"2011","journal-title":"Freshw Rev"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib6","first-page":"180","article-title":"Leeches","volume":"8","author":"Harrison","year":"1953","journal-title":"Med J Malaya"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib7","first-page":"279","article-title":"Leeches of Borneo","volume":"9","author":"Smythies","year":"1959","journal-title":"Sarawak Mus J"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib8","volume-title":"Field Studies on the Effectiveness of Repellents against Terrestrial Leeches in Southern Thailand","author":"Paja","year":"1965"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib9","volume-title":"Blood Sucking Asian Leeches of Families Hirudinidae and Haemadipsidae, no. 16","author":"Keegan","year":"1968"},{"key":"2026090204264734300_bib10","volume-title":"Land Leeches of the G. 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