{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T12:18:45Z","timestamp":1753877925974,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,31]],"date-time":"2019-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Deteriorated conditions in the non-prison population can lead to an approximation of its tuberculosis (TB) risk to that in the prison population. We evaluated the association between incarceration and TB incidence rate and its interaction with population income distribution inequality in Brazilian municipalities (2013\u20132015).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We included 954 municipalities with at least one prison. Interaction between the Gini coefficient and prison exposure was analysed in a multiple regression model. We estimated the fraction of TB in the population attributable fraction (PAF) to exposure to prisons according the Gini coefficient.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared with the non-prison population, the prisoners had 22.07 times (95% confidence interval [CI] 20.38 to 23.89) the risk of TB in municipalities where the Gini coefficient was &lt;0.60 and 14.96 times (95% CI 11.00 to 18.92) the risk where the Gini coefficient was \u22650.60. A negative interaction in the multiplicative scale was explained by a higher TB incidence in the non-prison population in municipalities with a Gini coefficient \u22650.60. The PAF ranged from 50.06% to 5.19% in municipalities with Gini coefficients &lt;0.40 and \u22650.60, respectively.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Interventions to reduce prison exposure would have an ostensible impact in population TB incidence rates mainly in settings with lower Gini coefficients. In those with extreme inequality in income distribution, strategies focused on mitigating the effects of socio-economic factors should also be prioritized.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/trz088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,30]],"date-time":"2019-07-30T19:10:19Z","timestamp":1564513819000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Impact of incarceration on tuberculosis incidence and its interaction with income distribution inequality in Brazil"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Daniele Maria","family":"Pelissari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgraduate Program in Epidemiology, School of Public Health. Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 715. S\u00e3o Paulo\/SP. Brazil 01246-904"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fredi Alexander","family":"Diaz-Quijano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health. Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 715. S\u00e3o Paulo\/SP. Brazil 01246-904. E-mail: frediazq@usp.br"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,31]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"An introduction to social medicine","year":"1966","author":"McKeown","key":"2019103102193156000_ref1"},{"issue":"5","key":"2019103102193156000_ref2","first-page":"585","article-title":"Neighbourhood risk factors for tuberculosis in Hong Kong","volume":"14","author":"Pang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis."},{"issue":"5","key":"2019103102193156000_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00078708","article-title":"An ecological analysis of incidence of tuberculosis and per capita gross domestic product","volume":"32","author":"Janssens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur Respir J."},{"issue":"9","key":"2019103102193156000_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.08.058453","article-title":"Trends in tuberculosis incidence and their determinants in 134 countries","volume":"87","author":"Dye","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bull World Health Org."},{"issue":"4","key":"2019103102193156000_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0176116","article-title":"Household crowding as a potential mediator of socioeconomic determinants of tuberculosis incidence in Brazil","volume":"12","author":"Pelissari","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"4","key":"2019103102193156000_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0124260","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for adult pulmonary tuberculosis in a metropolitan city of South India","volume":"10","author":"Dhanaraj","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"4","key":"2019103102193156000_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyi100","article-title":"Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: A case\u2013control study in three countries in West Africa","volume":"34","author":"Lienhardt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol."},{"issue":"2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-006-9068-z","article-title":"Risk factors for developing tuberculosis in remand prisons in St. Petersburg, Russia \u2014 A case-control study","volume":"22","author":"Lobacheva","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol."},{"issue":"11","key":"2019103102193156000_ref9","first-page":"809","article-title":"Tuberculosis in a south African prison \u2013 A transmission modelling analysis","volume":"101","author":"Johnstone-Robertson","year":"2011","journal-title":"South Afr Med J."},{"issue":"2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref10","first-page":"223","article-title":"Controlling tuberculosis in prisons against confinement conditions: A lost case? Experience from Cameroon","volume":"15","author":"Noeske","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"2019103102193156000_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-3761-y","article-title":"Smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in prison settings of North Gondar zone, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Gebrecherkos","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"key":"2019103102193156000_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-016-0030-9","article-title":"Prevalence of tuberculosis and associated risk factors in the central prison of Mbuji-Mayi, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"44","author":"Kalonji","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trop Med Health."},{"issue":"3","key":"2019103102193156000_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1177\/1010539518757229","article-title":"Modelling the impact of different tuberculosis control interventions on the prevalence of tuberculosis in an overcrowded prison","volume":"30","author":"Naning","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asia Pac J Public Health."},{"issue":"12","key":"2019103102193156000_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000381","article-title":"Tuberculosis incidence in prisons: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Baussano","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"issue":"6","key":"2019103102193156000_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-018545","article-title":"Identifying socioeconomic, epidemiological and operational scenarios for tuberculosis control in Brazil: An ecological study","volume":"8","author":"Pelissari","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Open."},{"volume-title":"Global tuberculosis report 2017","year":"2017","author":"World Health Organization","key":"2019103102193156000_ref16"},{"issue":"11","key":"2019103102193156000_ref17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Implanta\u00e7\u00e3o do Plano Nacional pelo Fim da Tuberculose Como Problema de Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica no Brasil: Primeiros Passos rumo ao alcance das metas","volume":"49","author":"Minist\u00e9rio da Sa\u00fade","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bol Epidemiol\u00f3gico."},{"volume-title":"Levantamento Nacional de Informa\u00e7\u00f5es Penitenci\u00e1rias \u2014 Infopen","year":"2017","author":"Minist\u00e9rio da Justi\u00e7a","key":"2019103102193156000_ref18"},{"volume-title":"Departamento de Inform\u00e1tica do SUS. Informa\u00e7\u00f5es de sa\u00fade (TABNET)","year":"2017","author":"Minist\u00e9rio da Sa\u00fade","key":"2019103102193156000_ref19"},{"volume-title":"Atlas do Desenvolvimento Humano no Brasil","year":"2015","author":"Programa das Na\u00e7\u00f5es Unidas para o Desenvolvimento","key":"2019103102193156000_ref20"},{"volume-title":"Crit\u00e9rios de defini\u00e7\u00e3o de casos de AIDS em adultos e crian\u00e7as","year":"2004","author":"Minist\u00e9rio da Sa\u00fade","key":"2019103102193156000_ref21"},{"volume-title":"PovcalNet","author":"World Bank","key":"2019103102193156000_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1596\/978-1-4648-0484-7_povcalnet"},{"issue":"5","key":"2019103102193156000_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e318126c11d","article-title":"Can DAGs clarify effect modification?","volume":"18","author":"Weinberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Epidemiology."},{"issue":"1","key":"2019103102193156000_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1515\/em-2013-0005","article-title":"A tutorial on interaction","volume":"3","author":"VanderWeele","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epidemiol Methods"},{"volume-title":"Health, rights and drugs: harm reduction, decriminalization and zero discrimination for people who use drugs","year":"2019","author":"Joint United Nations Programme on HIV\/AIDS","key":"2019103102193156000_ref25"},{"volume-title":"Data analysis using regression and multilevel hierarchical models","year":"2007","author":"Gelman","key":"2019103102193156000_ref26"},{"key":"2019103102193156000_ref27","volume-title":"Modern epidemiology","author":"Rothman","year":"2008","edition":"3rd"},{"issue":"2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyr218","article-title":"Recommendations for presenting analyses of effect modification and interaction","volume":"41","author":"Knol","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol."},{"issue":"5","key":"2019103102193156000_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199209000-00012","article-title":"Confidence interval estimation of interaction","volume":"3","author":"Hosmer","year":"1992","journal-title":"Epidemiology."},{"issue":"11","key":"2019103102193156000_ref30","first-page":"1215","article-title":"Tuberculosis and tuberculosis control in European prisons","volume":"10","author":"Aerts","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2010.12.002","article-title":"Tuberculosis in prisons in sub-Saharan Africa\u2014The need for improved health services, surveillance and control","volume":"91","author":"O\u2019Grady","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tuberculosis (Edinb)."},{"issue":"1","key":"2019103102193156000_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19589-3","article-title":"Serum vitamin D levels and risk of prevalent tuberculosis, incident tuberculosis and tuberculin skin test conversion among prisoners","volume":"8","author":"Maceda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"volume-title":"Systematic screening for active tuberculosis: principles and recommendations","year":"2013","key":"2019103102193156000_ref33"},{"issue":"4","key":"2019103102193156000_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.15-0166","article-title":"da Silva Santos Carbone a, et\u00a0al. the impact of ventilation and early diagnosis on tuberculosis transmission in Brazilian prisons","volume":"93","author":"Urrego","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"issue":"5","key":"2019103102193156000_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881400288X","article-title":"Review of the prevalence and drug resistance of tuberculosis in prisons: A hidden epidemic","volume":"143","author":"Biadglegne","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect."},{"key":"2019103102193156000_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k757","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k757","article-title":"Population attributable fraction","volume":"360","author":"Mansournia","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"volume-title":"Re produ\u00e7\u00e3o do espa\u00e7o urbano de Juiz de Fora, MG e distribui\u00e7\u00e3o espacial da tuberculose","year":"2008","author":"Angelo","key":"2019103102193156000_ref37"},{"issue":"11","key":"2019103102193156000_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0111209","article-title":"Incidence of HIV-associated tuberculosis among individuals taking combination antiretroviral therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Kufa","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00042-10","article-title":"HIV and tuberculosis: A deadly human syndemic","volume":"24","author":"Kwan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev."},{"issue":"6","key":"2019103102193156000_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1590\/S1135-57272001000600004","article-title":"Influencia de las desigualdades sociales, la conflictividad social y la pobreza Extrema sobre la morbilidad por tuberculosis en la ciudad de Barcelona","volume":"75","author":"D\u00edaz de Quijano","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev Esp Salud P\u00fablica."},{"issue":"3","key":"2019103102193156000_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2303.161006","article-title":"Increase in tuberculosis cases among prisoners, Brazil, 2009\u20132014","volume":"23","author":"Bourdillon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"2019103102193156000_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002737","article-title":"Evaluating strategies for control of tuberculosis in prisons and prevention of spillover into communities: An observational and modeling study from Brazil","volume":"16","author":"Mabud","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"issue":"3","key":"2019103102193156000_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2103.140896","article-title":"Prisons as reservoir for community transmission of tuberculosis, Brazil","volume":"21","author":"Sacchi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"2019103102193156000_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.11606\/S1518-8787.2018052000131","article-title":"Offer of primary care services and detection of tuberculosis incidence in Brazil","volume":"52","author":"Pelissari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica."},{"issue":"Suppl 2","key":"2019103102193156000_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S37","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.10.0438","article-title":"Cash transfer and microfinance interventions for tuberculosis control: Review of the impact evidence and policy implications","volume":"15","author":"Boccia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis."}],"container-title":["Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trz088\/30334991\/trz088.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/advance-article-pdf\/doi\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trz088\/30334991\/trz088.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T08:35:42Z","timestamp":1610699742000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/trstmh\/advance-article\/doi\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trz088\/5610284"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,31]]},"references-count":45,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/trstmh\/trz088","relation":{},"ISSN":["0035-9203","1878-3503"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0035-9203"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1878-3503"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,31]]},"article-number":"trz088"}}