{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T09:51:54Z","timestamp":1772272314393,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,28]],"date-time":"2019-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1569628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":270,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006129","name":"FCT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CFCUL\/FIL\/00678\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CFCUL\/FIL\/00678\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006129","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Genetic engineering opens new possibilities for biomedical enhancement requiring ethical, societal and practical considerations to evaluate its implications for human biology, human evolution and our natural environment. In this Commentary, we consider human enhancement, and in particular, we explore genetic enhancement in an evolutionary context. In summarizing key open questions, we highlight the importance of acknowledging multiple effects (pleiotropy) and complex epigenetic interactions among genotype, phenotype and ecology, and the need to consider the unit of impact not only to the human body but also to human populations and their natural environment (systems biology). We also propose that a practicable distinction between \u2018therapy\u2019 and \u2018enhancement\u2019 may need to be drawn and effectively implemented in future regulations. Overall, we suggest that it is essential for ethical, philosophical and policy discussions on human enhancement to consider the empirical evidence provided by evolutionary biology, developmental biology and other disciplines.<\/jats:p><jats:p>Lay Summary: This Commentary explores genetic enhancement in an evolutionary context. We highlight the multiple effects associated with germline heritable genetic intervention, the need to consider the unit of impact to human populations and their natural environment, and propose that a practicable distinction between \u2018therapy\u2019 and \u2018enhancement\u2019 is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoz026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,26]],"date-time":"2019-09-26T11:25:33Z","timestamp":1569497133000},"page":"183-189","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Human enhancement"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"2019","author":[{"given":"Mara","family":"Almeida","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Filosofia das Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Diogo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy, College Medicine, Howard University, 520 W St. NW, Numa Adams Building, Room 1101, Washington, DC 20059, USA"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"2019101107591268200_eoz026-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046002","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/10\/4\/046002","article-title":"Post-implantation impedance spectroscopy of subretinal micro-electrode arrays, OCT imaging and numerical simulation: towards a more precise neuroprosthesis monitoring tool","volume":"10","author":"Pham","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Neural Eng"},{"key":"2019101107591268200_eoz026-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.4103\/2008-322X.150830","article-title":"Visual prostheses: the enabling technology to give sight to the blind","volume":"9","author":"Maghami","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Ophthal Vis Res"},{"key":"2019101107591268200_eoz026-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318ra203.","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aac4877","article-title":"Improving the spatial resolution of epiretinal implants by increasing stimulus pulse duration","volume":"7","author":"Weitz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"2019101107591268200_eoz026-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17435","article-title":"Restoring cortical control of functional movement in a human with quadriplegia","volume":"533","author":"Bouton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2019101107591268200_eoz026-B5","first-page":"533","article-title":"First paralysed person to be \u2018reanimated\u2019 offers neuroscience insights. 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