{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T13:59:24Z","timestamp":1754488764468,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698969600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":2,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The demystification of how 19th-century novelly designed materials became significant elements of modern technological, economic, and cultural life requires a complete understanding of the material dimensions of historical artifacts. The objects frequently described as the earliest manufactured plastic products\u2014the billiard balls made by John Wesley Hyatt and his associates from the late 1860s\u2014are examined closely for the first time and are found to be more complex and functionally more successful than has been described. Modern analytical techniques such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscope\u2014energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, micro-Fourier transformed infrared, and handheld\/micro-Raman spectroscopies were used to reveal the complex composition of the Smithsonian Institution's \u201coriginal\u201d 1868 celluloid billiard ball. Comparisons with billiard and pool balls commercialized from the 1880s to the 1960s showed an unexpected consistency in material formulations. All specimens were made of an unprecedented composite material prepared with a mixture of cellulose nitrate, camphor, and ground bone; the source of the bone was identified as cattle by peptide mass fingerprint (ZooMS). Patent specifications and contemporary journal descriptions explained how and when these formulations emerged. Combining the technical analyses of compositions with a careful reading of the historical record and contemporary descriptions reveals the key elements of the first successful efforts to substitute materials to assist the survival of endangered animals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad360","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,7]],"date-time":"2023-11-07T22:49:22Z","timestamp":1699397362000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Best billiard ball in the 19th century: Composite materials made of celluloid and bone as substitutes for ivory"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4491-9217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artur","family":"Neves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio Associado para a Qu\u00edmica Verde and Department of Conservation and Restoration, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Campus Caparica , Monte de Caparica 2829-516, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Friedel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of History, University of Maryland , 2115 Francis Scott Key Hall, College Park, Maryland 20742 , USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7393-6801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria J","family":"Melo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"REQUIMTE\u2014Laborat\u00f3rio Associado para a Qu\u00edmica Verde and Department of Conservation and Restoration, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Campus Caparica , Monte de Caparica 2829-516, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Maria Elvira","family":"Callapez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro Interuniversit\u00e1rio de Hist\u00f3ria das Ci\u00eancias e da Tecnologia, Faculdade de Ci\u00eancias, Universidade de Lisboa , Campo Grande , Lisbon 1749-016, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2085-6546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward P","family":"Vicenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum Conservation Institute, Smithsonian Institution , 4120 Silver Hill Road, Suitland, Maryland 20746 , USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0908-0938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Lam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum Conservation Institute, Smithsonian Institution , 4120 Silver Hill Road, Suitland, Maryland 20746 , USA"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]]},"reference":[{"issue":"11","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B1","first-page":"166","article-title":"Ten thousand dollars for a substitute for ivory","volume":"10","author":"Phellan & Collender","year":"1864","journal-title":"Sci Am"},{"volume-title":"Pioneer plastic: the making and selling of celluloid","year":"1983","author":"Friedel","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B2"},{"volume-title":"The illustrated encyclopedia of billiards","year":"1993","author":"Shamos","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B3"},{"key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1557\/mrs2005.186","article-title":"Artificial billiard balls","volume":"30","author":"Palucka","year":"2005","journal-title":"MRS Bull"},{"key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B5","first-page":"168","article-title":"Address of acceptance","volume":"6","author":"Hyatt","year":"1914","journal-title":"Ind Eng Chem"},{"volume-title":"American plastic: a cultural history","year":"1997","author":"Meikle","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B6"},{"volume-title":"Polymer pioneers: a popular history of the science and technology of large molecules","year":"1986","author":"Morris","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B7"},{"volume-title":"Early plastics: perspectives 1850\u20131950","year":"1997","author":"Mossman","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B8"},{"key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8090","DOI":"10.1002\/ange.202015095","article-title":"From parkesine to celluloid: the birth of organic plastics","volume":"133","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Angew Chem"},{"volume-title":"The history of snooker and billiards","year":"1986","author":"Everton","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B10"},{"volume-title":"Modern billiards","year":"1902","author":"Roberts","key":"2023122116010376000_pgad360-B11"},{"volume-title":"Billiards: the stokes of the game. 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