{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:57:55Z","timestamp":1790258275787,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"3","funder":[{"name":"R\u00c3\u00a9gion Wallonne - Win\u00c2\u00b2Wal","award":["1810108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1810108"]}]},{"name":"Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en R\u00c3\u00a9adaptation et Int\u00c3\u00a9gration Sociale","award":["Post-doctoral grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Post-doctoral grant"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate the effect of visual feedback, age and movement repetition on the upper limb (UL) accuracy and kinematics during a reaching task in immersive virtual reality (VR). Fifty-one healthy participants were asked to perform 25 trials of a reaching task in immersive VR with and without visual feedback of their hand. They were instructed to place, as accurately and as fast as possible, a controller held in their non-dominant hand in the centre of a virtual red cube of 3\u2005cm side length. For each trial, the end-point error (distance between the tip of the controller and the centre of the cube), a coefficient of linearity (CL), the movement time (MT), and the spectral arc length of the velocity signal (SPARC), which is a movement smoothness index, were calculated. Multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to assess the influence of visual feedback, age and trial repetition on the average end-point error, SPARC, CL and MT, and their time course throughout the 25 trials. Providing visual feedback of the hand reduced average end-point error (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005&lt;\u20050.001) and MT (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.044), improved SPARC (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005&lt;\u20050.001) but did not affect CL (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.07). Younger participants obtained a lower mean end-point error (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.037), a higher SPARC (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.021) and CL (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.013). MT was not affected by age (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.671). Trial repetition increased SPARC (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005&lt;\u20050.001) and CL (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005&lt;\u20050.001), and reduced MT (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.001) but did not affect end-point error (<jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\u2005=\u20050.608). In conclusion, the results of this study demonstrated that providing visual feedback of the hand and being younger improves UL accuracy and movement smoothness in immersive VR. UL kinematics but not accuracy can be improved with more trial repetitions. These findings could guide the future development of protocols in clinical rehabilitation and research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1097\/mrr.0000000000000588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,19]],"date-time":"2023-06-19T10:01:24Z","timestamp":1687168884000},"page":"221-229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Visual feedback and age affect upper limb reaching accuracy and kinematics in immersive virtual reality among healthy adults"],"prefix":"10.1097","volume":"46","author":[{"given":"Gauthier J.","family":"Everard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 catholique de Louvain, Secteur des Sciences de la Sant\u00e9, Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique, Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en r\u00e9adaptation et int\u00e9gration sociale, Universit\u00e9 Laval"},{"name":"Department of rehabilitation, Faculty of medicine, Laval University, Quebec, QC, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thierry M.","family":"Lejeune","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 catholique de Louvain, Secteur des Sciences de la Sant\u00e9, Institut de Recherche Exp\u00e9rimentale et Clinique, Neuro Musculo Skeletal Lab (NMSK), Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Cliniques universitaires Saint-Luc, Service de m\u00e9decine physique et r\u00e9adaptation, Brussels"},{"name":"Louvain Bionics, Universit\u00e9 catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles S.","family":"Batcho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en r\u00e9adaptation et int\u00e9gration sociale, Universit\u00e9 Laval"},{"name":"Department of rehabilitation, Faculty of medicine, Laval University, Quebec, QC, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3122","article-title":"Virtual reality in neuroscience research and therapy.","volume":"12","author":"Bohil","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"R2-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.110.605451","article-title":"Virtual reality in stroke rehabilitation: a meta-analysis and implications for clinicians.","volume":"42","author":"Saposnik","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"R3-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.5334\/pb.1033","article-title":"The use of the term virtual reality in post-stroke rehabilitation: a scoping review and commentary.","volume":"61","author":"Huygelier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol Belg"},{"key":"R4-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.00180","article-title":"Immersive 3D virtual reality cancellation task for visual neglect assessment: a pilot study.","volume":"14","author":"Knobel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"R5-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2017.01.034","article-title":"Cognitive evaluation for the diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease based on Turing Test and Virtual Environments.","volume":"173","author":"Fernandez Montenegro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"R6-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-00981-0","article-title":"Concurrent validity of an immersive virtual reality version of the Box and Block Test to assess manual dexterity among patients with stroke.","volume":"19","author":"Everard","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"key":"R7-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-01114-3","article-title":"Performing a shortened version of the Action Research Arm Test in immersive virtual reality to assess post-stroke upper limb activity.","volume":"19","author":"Burton","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"key":"R8-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3556","DOI":"10.3390\/app9173556","article-title":"Potential of augmented reality and virtual reality technologies to promote wellbeing in older adults.","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"R9-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968318820169","article-title":"Effect of specific over nonspecific VR-based rehabilitation on poststroke motor recovery: a systematic meta-analysis.","volume":"33","author":"Maier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurorehabil Neural Repair"},{"key":"R10-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afac175","article-title":"Effectiveness of exergaming-based interventions for mobility and balance performance in older adults with Parkinson\u2019s disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"R11-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2022.101740","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the effect of serious games on people with dementia.","volume":"82","author":"Saragih","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"R12-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-018-0370-2","article-title":"What do randomized controlled trials say about virtual rehabilitation in stroke? A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of upper-limb and cognitive outcomes.","volume":"15","author":"Aminov","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"key":"R13-20250525","first-page":"Cd008349","article-title":"Virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation.","volume":"11","author":"Laver","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"R14-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.23736\/S1973-9087.22.07404-4","article-title":"New technologies promoting active upper limb rehabilitation after stroke: an overview and network meta-analysis.","volume":"58","author":"Everard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Phys Rehabil Med"},{"key":"R15-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.06.020","article-title":"Older adults talk technology: technology usage and attitudes.","volume":"26","author":"Mitzner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"key":"R16-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968319886477","article-title":"Standardized measurement of quality of upper limb movement after stroke: consensus-based core recommendations from the second stroke recovery and rehabilitation roundtable.","volume":"33","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurorehabil Neural Repair"},{"key":"R17-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.39.6.386","article-title":"Adult norms for the Box and Block Test of manual dexterity.","volume":"39","author":"Mathiowetz","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am J Occup Ther"},{"key":"R18-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-015-0090-9","article-title":"On the analysis of movement smoothness.","volume":"12","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"issue":"3 Pt 2","key":"R19-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.104.4.1297-1309","article-title":"Age-related differences in upper limb proprioceptive acuity.","volume":"104","author":"Adamo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Percept Mot Skills"},{"key":"R20-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2009.10.005","article-title":"Motor control and aging: links to age-related brain structural, functional, and biochemical effects.","volume":"34","author":"Seidler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"R21-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1518\/001872099779611102","article-title":"Aging, motor control, and the performance of computer mouse tasks.","volume":"41","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"R22-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/24.2.108","article-title":"Upper-extremity motor co-ordination of healthy elderly people.","volume":"24","author":"Desrosiers","year":"1995","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"R23-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1123\/mcj.6.1.19","article-title":"Changes in multi-joint performance with age.","volume":"6","author":"Seidler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Motor Control"},{"key":"R24-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2020.00023","article-title":"Effect of age and body size on the wrist\u2019s viscoelasticity in healthy participants from 3 to 90 years old and reliability assessment.","volume":"2","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Sports Act Living"},{"key":"R25-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2004.01.005","article-title":"Review of motor control mechanisms underlying impact absorption from falls.","volume":"21","author":"Santello","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"R26-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847590","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.847590","article-title":"Age-related performance in using a fully immersive and automated virtual reality system to assess cognitive function.","volume":"13","author":"Tan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"R27-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01330","article-title":"Age-related differences with immersive and non-immersive virtual reality in memory assessment.","volume":"10","author":"Plechat\u00e1","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"R28-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-190734120-00021","article-title":"The integrative action of the nervous system.","volume":"34","author":"Sherrington","year":"1907","journal-title":"J Nerv Ment"},{"key":"R29-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00857.2013","article-title":"Opposed optimal strategies of weighting somatosensory inputs for planning reaching movements toward visual and proprioceptive targets.","volume":"112","author":"Blouin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"R30-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00067.2019","article-title":"Age-related changes in leg proprioception: implications for postural control.","volume":"122","author":"Henry","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"R31-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.5455\/msm.2019.31.219-221","article-title":"The importance and role of proprioception in the elderly: a short review.","volume":"31","author":"Ferlinc","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater Sociomed"},{"key":"R32-20250525","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s11556-007-0026-x","article-title":"Aging effects on joint proprioception: the role of physical activity in proprioception preservation.","volume":"4","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur Rev Aging Phys"},{"key":"R33-20250525","first-page":"456","article-title":"A personal resource for technology interaction: development and validation of the affinity for technology interaction (ATI) scale.","volume":"35","author":"Franke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Hum-Comput Int"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Rehabilitation Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/10.1097\/MRR.0000000000000588","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,25]],"date-time":"2025-05-25T20:05:33Z","timestamp":1748203533000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/10.1097\/MRR.0000000000000588"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,16]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/mrr.0000000000000588","relation":{},"ISSN":["0342-5282"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0342-5282","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,16]]}}}