{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T16:52:26Z","timestamp":1776185546371,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,1]],"date-time":"2013-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1377993600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,1]],"date-time":"2013-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1377993600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["OVS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We studied a set of Rembrandt's self\u2010portraits to reassess a previous claim, based on measurements of the centration of his painted irises, that Rembrandt had a large exotropia.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Of the 24 self\u2010portraits that Rembrandt painted, with significant ocular detail to give an impression of the direction of his gaze, we scanned 10; the five with the largest difference in centration between the irises and the five with the smallest difference. The right and left eyes in each image were then occluded using Photoshop to produce two additional images that gave monocular gaze. Thirty observers then judged where the portraits appeared to be gazing within the plane of their face.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although our observers did judge a significant outward deviation for gaze between the two eyes, part of this was caused by an outward deviation from central by the presumably nonstrabismic eye. Any greater amount of outward deviation from the \u201cstrabismic\u201d than the nonstrabismic eye can then be explained by a gaze overshoot induced by head turn, painting with a mirror, and angle kappas. In addition, Rembrandt's apparent strabismus is seen only in those portraits painted during a few years early in his career, and portraits that Rembrandt and his students produced of other presumably nonstrabismic individuals often give a similar impression of strabismus.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There are several factors that can explain why some of Rembrandt's self\u2010portraits make him look strabismic without concluding that he actually was. Rembrandt and his students may also have painted this appearance as an artistic style.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1097\/opx.0b013e31829d8d48","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,26]],"date-time":"2013-07-26T21:10:22Z","timestamp":1374873022000},"page":"970-979","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Was Rembrandt Strabismic?"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"90","author":[{"given":"Nicholas E.","family":"Mondero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Oklahoma College of Optometry Northeastern State University Tahlequah Oklahoma"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Russell J.","family":"Crotty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oklahoma College of Optometry Northeastern State University Tahlequah Oklahoma"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roger W.","family":"West","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oklahoma College of Optometry Northeastern State University Tahlequah Oklahoma"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200409163511224","article-title":"Was Rembrandt stereoblind?","volume":"351","author":"Livingstone MS","year":"2004","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200502103520622","article-title":"Was Rembrandt stereoblind? [letter]","volume":"352","author":"Marmor MF","year":"2005","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","volume-title":"The Artist's Eyes: Vision and the History of Art","author":"Marmor MF","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","first-page":"632","article-title":"Was Rembrandt stereoblind? 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Acuity for triadic eye gaze","volume":"131","author":"Symons LA","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Gen Psychol"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181559d82","article-title":"Redirecting gaze to improve the cosmetic appearance of strabismus","volume":"84","author":"Stuteville JL","year":"2007","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03194970","article-title":"The influence of head contour and nose angle on the perception of eye\u2010gaze direction","volume":"66","author":"Langton SR","year":"2004","journal-title":"Percept Psychophys"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.05.013","article-title":"The effect of head turn on the perception of gaze","volume":"49","author":"Kluttz NL","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","first-page":"736","article-title":"Photographic calibration of the Hirschberg test","volume":"28","author":"Brodie SE","year":"1987","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-199004000-00002","article-title":"The Hirschberg test: correlation with corneal radius and axial length","volume":"67","author":"Eskridge JB","year":"1990","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","first-page":"E112","article-title":"Differences in the perception of monocular and binocular gaze","volume":"87","author":"West RW","year":"2010","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","volume-title":"Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility: Theory and Management of Strabismus","author":"Noorden GK","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.3200\/GENP.134.3.313-328","article-title":"Gaze as depicted in Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring","volume":"134","author":"West RW","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Gen Psychol"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1973.01000040020005","article-title":"Kappa angle measures of strabismic and nonstrabismic individuals","volume":"89","author":"Scott WE","year":"1973","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3182107cbc","article-title":"Influence of the direction of eye turn on the appearance of strabismus","volume":"88","author":"Dolven JM","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_22_1","first-page":"S172","article-title":"Blood shot illusion: luminance affects perceived gaze direction","volume":"39","author":"Ando S","year":"1998","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.4992\/jjpsy.74.104","article-title":"[Effect of luminance on perception of gaze direction in Japanese]","volume":"74","author":"Ando S","year":"2003","journal-title":"Shinrigaku Kenkyu"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_24_1","volume-title":"Rembrandt by Himself","author":"White C","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_25_1","volume-title":"Vital and Health Statistics: Series 11 (DHEW Publication No. [PHS] 78\u20101654)","author":"Roberts J","year":"1978"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_26_1","volume-title":"Visual Optics","author":"Emsley HH","year":"1953"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.3928\/1081597X-20100114-06","article-title":"Distribution of angle kappa measurements with Orbscan II in a population\u2010based survey","volume":"26","author":"Hashemi H","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Refract Surg"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_28_1","unstructured":"LacayoR.Rembrandt and the face of Jesus. Time Magazine 2011. Available at:http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/photogallery\/0 29307 2087000 00.html. Accessed January 2 2013."}],"container-title":["Optometry and Vision Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31829d8d48","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31829d8d48","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31829d8d48","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T10:12:48Z","timestamp":1774951968000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31829d8d48"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31829d8d48"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/opx.0b013e31829d8d48","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1040-5488","1538-9235"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1040-5488","type":"print"},{"value":"1538-9235","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,9]]}}}