{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T15:49:02Z","timestamp":1774367342287,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]],"date-time":"2022-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667260800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["lww.com","ovid.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Currently available urinalysis methods are often applied for screening and monitoring of several pathologies. However, traditionally analyzed biomarkers in urinalysis still lack sensitivity and specificity to accurately diagnose some diseases. Several studies have proposed the use of electronic noses (eNoses) for the analysis of volatile organic compounds in urine samples that may, directly or indirectly, correlate with certain pathologies. Hence, the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies concerning the use of portable electronic noses for diagnosis or monitoring of pathologies through analysis of urine samples. A systematic review of the literature was held according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Twenty-four articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. The results of the revised studies showed that there are various volatile organic compound profiles, identified through eNose analysis, that may be applied for diagnosis or monitoring of several diseases, such as diabetes, urinary tract infection, inflammatory bowel disease, and kidney disease. A meta-analysis was conducted taking into consideration the data of 10 of the initial 24 articles. The pooled sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratio were 84% (95% CI, 0.72\u20130.92), 85% (95% CI, 0.75\u20130.91), and 24.17 (95% CI: 7.85\u201374.41), respectively. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.897. These results suggest that eNose technology has adequate diagnostic accuracy for several pathologies and could be a promising screening tool for clinical settings. However, more studies are needed to reduce heterogeneity between results.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pbj.0000000000000188","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,15]],"date-time":"2022-12-15T21:00:53Z","timestamp":1671138053000},"page":"e188","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/lww.0000000000001000","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Diagnosis of pathological conditions through electronic nose analysis of urine samples: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1097","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Helga A.S.","family":"Afonso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico do Porto, Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Mariana V.","family":"Farraia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EPIUnit\u2014Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Basic and Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"M\u00f3nica A.","family":"Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico do Porto, Porto, Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1175-242X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Cavaleiro Rufo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EPIUnit\u2014Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"276","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1-20241001","first-page":"185","article-title":"Introduction to urinalysis","volume":"641","author":"Echeverry","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hist Perspect Clin Appl"},{"key":"R2-20241001","first-page":"CD010007","article-title":"Screening with urinary dipsticks for reducing morbidity and mortality","volume":"2017","author":"Krogsb\u00f8ll","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"R3-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033694","article-title":"Regular health checks: cross-sectional survey","volume":"7","author":"Gr\u00f8nh\u00f8j Larsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"R4-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2006.02.003","article-title":"Use and costs of nonrecommended tests during routine preventive health exams","volume":"30","author":"Merenstein","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"R5-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.165.12.1347","article-title":"Support of evidence-based guidelines for the annual physical examination","volume":"165","author":"Prochazka","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"R6-20241001","first-page":"282","article-title":"Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation HTA Health Technology Assessment NHS R&D HTA Programme","volume":"10","author":"Rodgers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Health Technol Assess (Rockv)"},{"key":"R7-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.7748\/ns.30.2.34.e10001","article-title":"How to perform a urinalysis","volume":"30","author":"Bardsley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nurs Stand"},{"key":"R8-20241001","first-page":"1153","article-title":"Urinalysis: a comprehensive review","volume":"71","author":"Simerville","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am Fam Physician"},{"key":"R9-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1179\/acb.2007.026","article-title":"New screening diagnostic techniques in urinalysis","volume":"62","author":"Delanghe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Clin Belg"},{"key":"R10-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e42","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pbj.0000000000000042","article-title":"The electronic nose technology in clinical diagnosis: a systematic review","volume":"4","author":"Farraia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Porto Biomed J"},{"key":"R11-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2013.01.008","article-title":"Volatile fingerprints of cancer specific genetic mutations","volume":"9","author":"Peled","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"R12-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3390\/bios10080083","article-title":"Sniffing out urinary tract infection-diagnosis based on volatile organic compounds and smell profile","volume":"10","author":"Dospinescu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"R13-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13596","article-title":"Exhaled breath condensate volatilome allows sensitive diagnosis of persistent asthma","volume":"74","author":"Cavaleiro Rufo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy Eur J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"R14-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00020-13","article-title":"Clinical application of volatile organic compound analysis for detecting infectious diseases","volume":"26","author":"Sethi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"R15-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1586\/17434440.2.5.559","article-title":"Medical applications of electronic nose technology","volume":"2","author":"Thaler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Expert Rev Med Devices"},{"key":"R16-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000097","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000097","article-title":"Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement","volume":"6","author":"Moher","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"R18-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019007","DOI":"10.4178\/epih.e2019007","article-title":"Diagnostic test accuracy: application and practice using R software","volume":"41","author":"Shim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiol Health"},{"key":"R20-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2007.11.010","article-title":"Contour-enhanced meta-analysis funnel plots help distinguish publication bias from other causes of asymmetry","volume":"61","author":"Peters","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Epidemiol"},{"key":"R21-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.315.7109.629","article-title":"Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test","volume":"315","author":"Egger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"R22-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x","article-title":"Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method","volume":"56","author":"Duval","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"R23-20241001","first-page":"785","article-title":"Quantifying publication bias in meta-analysis","volume":"74","author":"Chu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol Behav"},{"key":"R24-20241001","first-page":"215","article-title":"Predicting type 2 diabetes using an electronic nose-based artificial neural network analysis","volume":"15","author":"Linder","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diab Nutr Metab"},{"key":"R28-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3390\/bios8040121","article-title":"Non-invasive diagnosis of diabetes by volatile organic compounds in urine using FAIMs and FOX4000 electronic nose","volume":"8","author":"Esfahani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosensors (Basel)"},{"key":"R30-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2014.01.113","article-title":"Detection of prostate cancer by an electronic nose: a proof of principle study","volume":"192","author":"Roine","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R31-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2015.02.1652","article-title":"Pd25-03 an electronic nose system detects bladder cancer in urine specimen: first results of a pilot study","volume":"193","author":"Horstmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"R32-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3233\/CBM-190466","article-title":"Electronic nose to distinguish bladder cancer by urinary odour feature: a pilot study","volume":"28","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Biomarkers"},{"key":"R33-20241001","first-page":"833","article-title":"Non-invasive detection of bladder tumors through volatile organic compounds: a pilot study with an electronic nose","volume":"38","author":"Gut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anticancer Res"},{"key":"R34-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.10.044","article-title":"Development and application of a new electronic nose instrument for the detection of colorectal cancer","volume":"67","author":"Westenbrink","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens Bioelectron [Internet]"},{"key":"R35-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(02)00078-7","article-title":"Use of an electronic nose system for diagnoses of urinary tract infections","volume":"17","author":"Pavlou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens Bioelectron"},{"key":"R36-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129065705000347","article-title":"The use of gas-sensor arrays to diagnose urinary tract infections","volume":"15","author":"Kodogiannis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Neural Syst"},{"key":"R37-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2008.917928","article-title":"Artificial odor discrimination system using electronic nose and neural networks for the identification of urinary tract infection","volume":"12","author":"Kodogiannis","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed"},{"key":"R39-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/bios10050048","article-title":"Smell\u2014adding a new dimension to urinalysis","volume":"10","author":"Visser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"R40-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0b013e3182802b26","article-title":"A Novel tool for noninvasive diagnosis and tracking of patients with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"19","author":"Arasaradnam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm Bowel Dis"},{"key":"R41-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.6b00309","article-title":"Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis from analysis of urine volatile organic compounds","volume":"1","author":"Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Sensors"},{"key":"R42-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.16.0677","article-title":"Qualitative analysis of biological tuberculosis samples by an electronic nose-based artificial neural network","volume":"21","author":"Mohamed","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"R43-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/20\/4\/305","article-title":"Electronic nose analysis of urine samples containing blood","volume":"20","author":"Di Natale","year":"1999","journal-title":"Physiol Meas"},{"key":"R44-20241001","first-page":"1","article-title":"Kidney disease: Improving global outcomes (KDIGO) CKD work group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease","volume":"3","author":"Levin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl"},{"key":"R45-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.2217\/bmm-2020-0085","article-title":"Urine headspace analysis with field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry for detection of chronic kidney disease","volume":"14","author":"Jokiniitty","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomark Med"},{"key":"R48-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3109\/03091902.2010.539770","article-title":"Insights into \u201cfermentonomics\u201d: evaluation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in human disease using an electronic \u201ce-nose.\u201d","volume":"35","author":"Arasaradnam","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Med Eng Technol"},{"key":"R49-20241001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11899","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911899","article-title":"Application of a novel tool for diagnosing bile acid diarrhoea","volume":"13","author":"Covington","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"}],"container-title":["Porto Biomedical Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/10.1097\/j.pbj.0000000000000188","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,1]],"date-time":"2024-10-01T19:03:32Z","timestamp":1727809412000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/10.1097\/j.pbj.0000000000000188"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/j.pbj.0000000000000188","relation":{},"ISSN":["2444-8664"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2444-8664","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-03-01","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-28","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}