{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:38:06Z","timestamp":1790789886933,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Biol. Lett."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Many insect species are reluctant to fly freely in wind tunnels, limiting direct free-flight energetics measurements to just two species. More commonly tethered-flight energetics have been investigated, though the effects of tethering on metabolic rate are unclear. Here, we report mass-specific gross metabolic rate (assessed as the rate of carbon dioxide production;\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mstyle>\n                          <mml:mrow>\n                            <mml:mstyle displaystyle=\"false\">\n                              <mml:msubsup>\n                                <mml:mover>\n                                  <mml:mi>V<\/mml:mi>\n                                  <mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mo>\u02d9<\/mml:mo>\n                                  <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <\/mml:mover>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:msub>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mtext>CO<\/mml:mtext>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mn>2<\/mml:mn>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                  <\/mml:msub>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:mo>\u2217<\/mml:mo>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                              <\/mml:msubsup>\n                            <\/mml:mstyle>\n                          <\/mml:mrow>\n                        <\/mml:mstyle>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    ) across a speed range (0\u20134.1 m s\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    ) in bumblebee (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Bombus terrestris<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) workers during tethered and free flight in a closed-circuit wind tunnel.\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mstyle>\n                          <mml:mrow>\n                            <mml:mstyle displaystyle=\"false\">\n                              <mml:msubsup>\n                                <mml:mover>\n                                  <mml:mi>V<\/mml:mi>\n                                  <mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mo>\u02d9<\/mml:mo>\n                                  <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <\/mml:mover>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:msub>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mtext>CO<\/mml:mtext>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mn>2<\/mml:mn>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                  <\/mml:msub>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:mo>\u2217<\/mml:mo>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                              <\/mml:msubsup>\n                            <\/mml:mstyle>\n                          <\/mml:mrow>\n                        <\/mml:mstyle>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    followed a U-shaped relationship with airspeed during both free (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.009) and tethered flight (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.001). Bees were anaesthetized with isoflurane during tethering, which had no subsequent effect on their metabolic rate (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &gt; 0.05), avoiding issues reported during immobilization with CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    or cold exposure. Tethered\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mstyle>\n                          <mml:mrow>\n                            <mml:mstyle displaystyle=\"false\">\n                              <mml:msubsup>\n                                <mml:mover>\n                                  <mml:mi>V<\/mml:mi>\n                                  <mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mo>\u02d9<\/mml:mo>\n                                  <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <\/mml:mover>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:msub>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mtext>CO<\/mml:mtext>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                    <mml:mrow>\n                                      <mml:mn>2<\/mml:mn>\n                                    <\/mml:mrow>\n                                  <\/mml:msub>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                                <mml:mrow>\n                                  <mml:mo>\u2217<\/mml:mo>\n                                <\/mml:mrow>\n                              <\/mml:msubsup>\n                            <\/mml:mstyle>\n                          <\/mml:mrow>\n                        <\/mml:mstyle>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    was 45% lower than during free flight (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.001), but the minimum power speed and the trajectory of the metabolic power\u2013speed relationship (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &gt; 0.8) were similar. Overall flight efficiency ranged from 7.3 to 14.7% and did not vary with airspeed. These findings confirm a U-shaped metabolic power\u2013speed relationship in insects, and suggest that tethered flight may approximate free-flight energetics. However, a shift in the maximum range speed to slower speeds during tethered flight warrants caution against using this variable to predict behaviour.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2025.0325","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T00:05:31Z","timestamp":1762905931000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Energetics of free and tethered flight in bumblebees (\n                    <i>Bombus terrestris<\/i>\n                    , Linnaeus 1758)"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Emily J.","family":"Senior","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds","place":["Leeds, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0389-3580","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter","family":"Tickle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds","place":["Leeds, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon M.","family":"Walker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds","place":["Leeds, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1010-4439","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Graham N.","family":"Askew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds","place":["Leeds, UK"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_7_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.130.1.235"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.116.1.271"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.200.21.2723"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02727"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.035717"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.120.1.79"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.081760"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.64.3.529"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_10_2","unstructured":"Dudley TR. 1987 Mechanics of forward flight in insects. 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