{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T12:43:39Z","timestamp":1791549819786,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2005,12,1]],"date-time":"2005-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1133395200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. R. Soc. Interface."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The evolutionary status of attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is central to assessments of whether modern society has created it, either physically or socially; and is potentially useful in understanding its neurobiological basis and treatment. The high prevalence of ADHD (5\u201310%) and its association with the seven-repeat allele of DRD4, which is positively selected in evolution, raise the possibility that ADHD increases the reproductive fitness of the individual, and\/or the group. However, previous suggestions of evolutionary roles for ADHD have not accounted for its confinement to a substantial minority. Because one of the key features of ADHD is its diversity, and many benefits of population diversity are well recognized (as in immunity), we study the impact of groups' behavioural diversity on their fitness. Diversity occurs along many dimensions, and for simplicity we choose unpredictability (or variability), excess of which is a well-established characteristic of ADHD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Simulations of the Changing Food group task show that unpredictable behaviour by a\n                    <jats:italic>minority<\/jats:italic>\n                    optimizes results for the group. Characteristics of such\n                    <jats:italic>group exploration tasks<\/jats:italic>\n                    are risk-taking, in which costs are borne mainly by the individual; and information-sharing, in which benefits accrue to the entire group. Hence, this work is closely linked to previous studies of evolved altruism.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>We conclude that even individually impairing combinations of genes, such as ADHD, can carry specific benefits for society, which can be selected for at that level, rather than being merely genetic coincidences with effects confined to the individual. The social benefits conferred by diversity occur both inside and outside the \u2018normal\u2019 range, and these may be distinct. This view has the additional merit of offering explanations for the prevalence, sex and age distribution, severity distribution and heterogeneity of ADHD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,12,8]],"date-time":"2005-12-08T16:21:45Z","timestamp":1134058905000},"page":"399-413","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Advanced Study0271 Oslo, Norway"},{"name":"Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University CollegeLondon WC1N 3AR, UK"},{"name":"Department of Child Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College Londonde Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College Londonde Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.es.09.110178.002313"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR 2000","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X02000092"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn0305-253"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2003.10.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/tpbi.2001.1518"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/276408"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1521\/adhd.9.4.8.19068"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009085417776"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00916692"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1209"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/12.2.121"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1985.tb01945.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(01)00244-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01379.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579402002079"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","article-title":"Molecular genetic studies of ADHD: 1991 to 2004","author":"Bobb A.J","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. (Neuropsych. Genet.)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/286052"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(00)01753-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/343878"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(01)00194-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn896"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0400156101"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004390050166"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1090-5138(99)00015-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8333.1997.tb00330.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025457300409"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2004.00618.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00036207"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02287293"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.141.10.1189"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001411"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.012464099"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-002-0145-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2003.tb02531.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.11.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02043"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.91.4.816","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, creativity, and the effects of methylphenidate","volume":"91","author":"Funk J.B","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.2000.1557"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(97)89056-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326942DN2002_2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199605000-00013"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","first-page":"231","volume-title":"Foraging behavior: ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches","author":"Glander K.E","year":"1981"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.55.090902.141429"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"ADHD, hunting and evolution: \u201cjust so\u201d stories","volume":"6","author":"Goldstein S","year":"1998","journal-title":"ADHD Rep"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/286050"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-3472(95)80100-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1979.0086"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001350"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1977.tb01024.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0959354304044918"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.012612799"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.genom.1.1.361"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","unstructured":"Hartmann T. 1993 Attention deficit disorder: a different perception. Lancaster UK:Underwood-Miller."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/ae.1982.9.2.02a00100"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.70.5.1099"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","first-page":"495","article-title":"How learning can guide evolution","volume":"1","author":"Hinton G.E","year":"1987","journal-title":"Complex Syst"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(97)00181-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199712000-00015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004703-200102000-00008"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/drev.2000.0511"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/lmot.2001.1110"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1998.tb12356.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200005000-00007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1076\/jcen.20.4.518.1477"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.3.433"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.15.8420"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001082"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329170400337X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-6696(200021)36:2<149::AID-JHBS3>3.0.CO;2-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199810000-00010"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-6918(00)00019-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.168.4.486"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199706000-00009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2004.06.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.90.2.595"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.01.030"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2004.11.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000712602761381394"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_82_1","first-page":"21","volume-title":"Social development","author":"MacDonald K","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1056-4993(18)30114-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_84_1","first-page":"148","article-title":"Is ADHD adaptive or non-adaptive behavior?","volume":"24","author":"Matejcek Z","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinol. Lett"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00150"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00036372"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.273.5276.739"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199808000-00001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1093411"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002650050664"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.111"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2003.tb00952.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1988.tb00717.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_94_1","first-page":"2","article-title":"Family planning for psychiatric patients","volume":"11","author":"Puente F.G","year":"1977","journal-title":"IPPF. Med. Bull"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00908310152125210"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richerson P.J& Boyd R. 2004 Not by genes alone: how culture transformed human evolution. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226712130.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579497002022"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/aa.1988.90.4.02a00030"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.20133"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199906000-00019"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200105000-00012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X05000075"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(97)00169-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2003.08.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.01109s6813"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(99)00060-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00221325.1996.9914877"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/422893"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/329761a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2003.08.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-3588.00055"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/285753"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(99)00062-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X02490097"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_116_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tig.2004.01.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_117_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00402.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.184.1.8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_119_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.97.s01.7.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(01)00163-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.72.2.218"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_122_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tpb.2004.06.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_123_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/420854"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1474-919X.1973.tb01990.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_125_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.53.082901.103945"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_126_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199911000-00009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_127_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2005.15.160"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_128_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2003.10.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_129_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00036104"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_130_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(99)00074-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_131_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.94.2.633-636"}],"container-title":["Journal of The Royal Society Interface"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,5]],"date-time":"2023-05-05T16:46:41Z","timestamp":1683305201000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2005,12]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,22]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsif.2005.0102","relation":{},"ISSN":["1742-5689","1742-5662"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1742-5689","type":"print"},{"value":"1742-5662","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2005,12]]}}}