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However, the material response of the oesophagus has not been established ex vivo in regard to the more complex aspects of its mechanical behaviour using fresh, human tissue: as of yet, in the literature, only the hyperelastic response of the intact wall has been studied. Therefore, in this study, the layer-dependent, anisotropic, visco-hyperelastic behaviour of the human oesophagus was investigated through various mechanical tests. For this, cyclic tests, with increasing stretch levels, were conducted on the layers of the human oesophagus in the longitudinal and circumferential directions and at two different strain rates. Additionally, stress-relaxation tests on the oesophageal layers were carried out in both directions. Overall, the results show discrete properties in each layer and direction, highlighting the importance of treating the oesophagus as a multi-layered composite material with direction-dependent behaviour. Previously, the authors conducted layer-dependent cyclic experimentation on formalin-embalmed human oesophagi. A comparison between the fresh and embalmed tissue response was carried out and revealed surprising similarities in terms of anisotropy, strain-rate dependency, stress-softening and hysteresis, with the main difference between the two preservation states being the magnitude of these properties. As formalin fixation is known to notably affect the formation of cross-links between the collagen of biological materials, the differences may reveal the influence of cross-links on the mechanical behaviour of soft tissues.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2023.0592","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,9]],"date-time":"2024-04-09T19:05:17Z","timestamp":1712689517000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Characterization of the layer, direction and time-dependent mechanical behaviour of the human oesophagus and the effects of formalin preservation"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8131-5642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ciara","family":"Durcan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Swansea SA1 8EN, UK 1","department":["Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University"]},{"name":"Grenoble 38000, France 2","department":["CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4616-1104","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mokarram","family":"Hossain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swansea SA1 8EN, UK 1","department":["Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9386-7046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gr\u00e9gory","family":"Chagnon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grenoble 38000, France 2","department":["CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1112-301X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Djordje","family":"Peri\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swansea SA1 8EN, UK 1","department":["Zienkiewicz Institute for Modelling, Data and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6762-8343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edouard","family":"Girard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grenoble 38000, France 2","department":["CNRS, UMR 5525, VetAgro Sup, Grenoble INP, TIMC, Grenoble Alpes University"]},{"name":"Grenoble, France 3","department":["Laboratoire d\u2019Anatomie des Alpes Fran\u00e7aises, Grenoble Alpes University"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010520263294100_RSIF20230592C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbmo.2017.03.019","article-title":"Uterine peristalsis and fertility: current knowledge and future perspectives: a review and meta-analysis","volume":"35","author":"Kuijsters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reprod. 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