{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T01:34:27Z","timestamp":1772156067229,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["R. Soc. Open Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    In this article, we research the material, mechanical, geometrical and chemical characteristics of the Turkana Abarait, a wrist blade used ubiquitously by Turkana people (both male and female) in north-western Kenya. To characterize the blades, we used a combination of three-dimensional scanning, scanning electron microscopy coupled with Image Analysis techniques, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence and Vickers hardness testing at HV30. We find that the blades are made from low-carbon bloomery iron, containing particulates of slag inclusions, or soot-based remnants, as well as trace elements of magnesium, sodium, aluminium, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, cobalt and potassium. While the soot particulates are likely derived from the incomplete refinement and non-uniform heating typical of pre-industrial forging methods, we deduce that the other trace elements originate from irons smelted from riverbed ore. We find that while blade edge angle does not differ between the blades (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mo lspace=\"0em\" rspace=\"0em\">&gt;<\/mml:mo>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    0.05, 95% confidence), the blade edge widths are significantly different (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mo lspace=\"0em\" rspace=\"0em\">&lt;<\/mml:mo>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    0.001, 99.9% confidence), indicating inconsistencies in the manufacturing processes. We find that there are mechanically significant differences in both inter- and intra-blade hardness values (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:inline-formula>\n                      <mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" display=\"inline\" overflow=\"scroll\">\n                        <mml:mo lspace=\"0em\" rspace=\"0em\">&lt;<\/mml:mo>\n                      <\/mml:math>\n                    <\/jats:inline-formula>\n                    0.001, 99.9% confidence), adding to our proposition that Abarait blades are manufactured inconsistently. The blades are nevertheless fit for purpose, achieving a balance of hardness and ductility suited to their dual role as cutting tools and close-combat weapons.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.250883","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T00:05:52Z","timestamp":1762301152000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Material characterization of the Turkana Abarait"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kate","family":"Parkinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh","place":["Edinburgh, UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9122-9369","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Parvez","family":"Alam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh","place":["Edinburgh, UK"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_8_2_2","first-page":"1","volume-title":"The wetland book: II: distribution, description and conservation","author":"Ojwang WO","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ojwang WO, Obiero KO, Donde OO, Gownaris N, Pikitch EK, Omondi R, Agembe S, Malala J, Avery ST. 2017 Lake Turkana: world\u2019s largest permanent Desert Lake (Kenya). In The wetland book: II: distribution, description and conservation (eds C Max Finlayson, G Randy Milton, R Crawford Prentice, NC Davidson), pp. 1\u201320. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_3_2","volume-title":"Kenya population and housing census: volume II, distribution of population by administrative units","author":"Max Finlayson C","year":"2019","unstructured":"Max Finlayson C, Randy Milton G, Crawford Prentice R, Davidson NC (eds). 2019 Kenya population and housing census: volume II, distribution of population by administrative units. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Dordrecht."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_4_2","unstructured":"CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). 2020 Kenya County Climate Risk Profile: Turkana County. 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