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Here, we retrodicted metabolic rates for four Lower Cretaceous enantiornithines: one hatchling, one adult from Las Hoyas, one early post-hatching juvenile and one post-juvenile individual from the Jehol Biota, using phylogenetic comparative analyses and a comprehensive dataset of extant birds spanning the altricial\u2013precocial spectrum. By examining vascular density (related to resting metabolic rate (RMR)) and nutrient foraminal size (proportional to blood flow rate) as proxies, we inferred the metabolic scope of the hatchling enantiornithine and determined that it fell toward the precocial end of the altricial\u2013precocial spectrum. The RMR values of the two enantiornithine chicks were retrodicted as 0.67 mlO2 h\u20131 g\u20130.93. The peak metabolic rate (PMR) retrodicted is twice the resting metabolism for the Las Hoyas hatchling. These results are consistent with a semi-precocial\/precocial development characterized by independent locomotion by climbing using the wing claws soon after hatching. However, flapping flight may have been delayed, owing to incomplete ossification of the sternum, as observed in one hatchling specimen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.260574","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T00:11:22Z","timestamp":1792541482000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Metabolic features of enantiornithines (Avialae: Ornithothoraces): evidence supporting a semi-precocial\/precocial developmental trajectory"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4708-999X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana V.","family":"Haase","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, Mus\u00e9um national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Centre de Recherche en Pal\u00e9ontologie\u2014Paris (CR2P, UMR 7207) 1 , 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, \u00cele-de-France, France"},{"name":"Morton K. Blaustein Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Johns Hopkins University 2 , Baltimore, ML, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7822-8740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabien","family":"Knoll","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Paleobiolog\u00eda, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales\u2014CSIC, Madrid, Spain 3"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2090-2824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dennis","family":"Voeten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Frisian Museum of Natural History, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands 4"},{"name":"European Synchrotron Radiation Facility 5 , Grenoble, Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3611-6836","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sophie","family":"Sanchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Organismal Biology, Subdepartment of Evolution and Development, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Uppsala County 6 , Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6968-6982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences 7 , Beijing, People's Republic of China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0016-5702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo","family":"Bert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Lyon 1, ENS de Lyon, Universit\u00e9 Jean Monnet, CNRS, LGL TPE 8 , UMR 5276, Villeurbanne, Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3459-4495","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esa\u00fa V.","family":"de Ara\u00fajo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laborat\u00f3rio de Sistem\u00e1tica e Tafonomia de Vertebrados F\u00f3sseis (LAPUG), Departamento de Geologia e Paleontologia, Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro 9 , Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2527-617X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco J.","family":"Serrano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 10 , Los Angeles, CA, USA"},{"name":"Departamento de Ecolog\u00eda y Geolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M\u00e1laga 11 , M\u00e1laga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2225-4917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier C.","family":"Terol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ecolog\u00eda y Geolog\u00eda, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M\u00e1laga 11 , M\u00e1laga, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3766-8560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Marug\u00e1n-Lob\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Paleontolog\u00eda, Dpto. Biolog\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid 12 , Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8160-779X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Cubo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, Mus\u00e9um national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Centre de Recherche en Pal\u00e9ontologie\u2014Paris (CR2P, UMR 7207) 1 , 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, \u00cele-de-France, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1038\/322736a0","article-title":"An enantiornithine bird from the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland, Australia","volume":"322","author":"Molnar","year":"1986","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-08114-4","article-title":"Cretaceous bird from Brazil informs the evolution of the avian skull and brain","volume":"635","author":"Chiappe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1080\/02724630903416068","article-title":"An enantiornithine bird from the lower middle Cenomanian of Texas","volume":"30","author":"Tykoski","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vertebr. Paleontol."},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1017\/S0016756821000807","article-title":"A new remarkably preserved enantiornithine bird from the Upper Cretaceous Qiupa Formation of Henan (central China) and convergent evolution between enantiornithines and modern birds","volume":"158","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geol. Mag."},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15513","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51929-9","article-title":"A mid-cretaceous enantiornithine foot and tail feather preserved in Burmese amber","volume":"9","author":"Xing","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. 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Biol."},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gr.2017.06.001","article-title":"A mid-cretaceous enantiornithine (Aves) hatchling preserved in Burmese amber with unusual plumage","volume":"49","author":"Xing","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gondwana Res."},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s10682-016-9872-1","article-title":"Evolution of avian breeding strategies and its relation to the habitat preferences of mesozoic birds","volume":"31","author":"Mayr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Evol. Ecol."},{"key":"2026102020111627500_RSOS260574C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1134\/S0031030113110087","article-title":"An embryonic enantiornithine bird and associated eggs from the cretaceous of Mongolia","volume":"47","author":"Kurochkin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Paleontol. 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