{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T00:39:28Z","timestamp":1792543168499,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792540800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":14,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"US National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1415352"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1415352"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001711","name":"Swiss National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["193959"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["193959"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001711","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010663","name":"European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["949932"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["949932"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Sustainably closing agricultural yield gaps remains a central challenge for advancing global food security while conserving biodiversity. This article develops a theoretical perspective on why sustainable intensification (SI) is limited in many lower-income countries, despite the technological feasibility of improving yields in these places. It explores these constraints to SI through two case studies of expanding commodity frontiers: (i) beef in the Brazilian Amazon and Cerrado and (ii) cocoa in West Africa. We find similar barriers to SI across the cases, including limited tenurial, financial, knowledge and cultural support, community-level risks to investment and cheap land favouring agricultural expansion. At the same time, both cases reveal potential for rapid intensification, as demonstrated by success in selected locations. The analysis helps explain why many promising SI strategies have achieved limited uptake in countries where land for expansion is still relatively abundant. The article also identifies a more optimistic pathway: ambitious economic and institutional reforms, well-funded community-level technical and financial investments, and smart conservation policies could unlock joint gains for food security and biodiversity. Global policy and finance changes have opened windows for this coordinated policy agenda, but improved demand-side policies are also needed to tip low-yielding agricultural systems onto new trajectories.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.260775","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T00:12:26Z","timestamp":1792541546000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Overcoming barriers to sustainable agricultural intensification"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6171-263X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachael","family":"Garrett","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Conservation and Development Lab, Conservation Research Institute and Department of Geography, University of Cambridge , Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/s43016-023-00913-8","article-title":"Global spatially explicit yield gap time trends reveal regions at risk of future crop yield stagnation","volume":"5","author":"Gerber","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Food"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C2","volume-title":"Yield potential and yield gap atlas (YPYGA)","author":"Wageningen University & Research \/ University of Nebraska-Lincoln"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3390\/su13010077","article-title":"What does gender yield gap tell us about smallholder farming in developing countries?","volume":"13","author":"Nchanji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2022.106475","article-title":"Do land property rights matter for stimulating agricultural productivity? Empirical evidence from Burkina Faso","volume":"125","author":"S\u00e9ogo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1002\/aepp.13003","article-title":"Uncertainty, learning, and technology adoption in agriculture","volume":"42","author":"Chavas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2013.11.012","article-title":"Analysis of trade-offs in agricultural systems: current status and way forward","volume":"6","author":"Klapwijk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20230216","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2023.0216","article-title":"Sustainable high-yield farming is essential for bending the curve of biodiversity loss","volume":"380","author":"Balmford","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-021-01528-7","article-title":"Areas of global importance for conserving terrestrial biodiversity, carbon and water","volume":"5","author":"Jung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabm9267.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm9267","article-title":"Disentangling the numbers behind agriculture-driven tropical deforestation","volume":"377","author":"Pendrill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcr.2012.09.009","article-title":"Yield gap analysis with local to global relevance\u2014a review","volume":"143","author":"van Ittersum","year":"2013","journal-title":"Field Crops Res."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-016-1027-y","article-title":"How to feed the world sustainably: an overview of the discourse on agroecology and sustainable intensification","volume":"17","author":"Bernard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-112320-093911","article-title":"Surveying the evidence on sustainable intensification strategies for smallholder agricultural systems","volume":"48","author":"Jain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2017.05.003","article-title":"Social and ecological analysis of commercial integrated crop livestock systems: current knowledge and remaining uncertainty","volume":"155","author":"Garrett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2015.02.002","article-title":"What is sustainable intensification? Views from experts","volume":"46","author":"Petersen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.economics.102308.124433","article-title":"Microeconomics of technology adoption","volume":"2","author":"Foster","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2019.01.006","article-title":"Perceptions of integrated crop-livestock systems for sustainable intensification in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"82","author":"Cortner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2012.02.003","article-title":"Beyond fragmentation and disconnect: networks for knowledge exchange in the English land management advisory system","volume":"30","author":"Klerkx","year":"2013","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1080\/14735903.2020.1786947","article-title":"Supporting smallholders' decision making: managing trade-offs and synergies for sustainable agricultural intensification","volume":"19","author":"Adolph","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1177\/00219347241312358","article-title":"Gendered framing of agribusiness under USAID's Feed the Future Initiative in Liberia: a colonial sequel?","volume":"56","author":"Amevor","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Black Stud."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2307\/143593","article-title":"Converting the wetlands, engendering the environment: the intersection of gender with agrarian change in the Gambia","volume":"69","author":"Carney","year":"1993","journal-title":"Econ. Geogr."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0419-7","article-title":"A more dynamic understanding of human behaviour for the Anthropocene","volume":"2","author":"Schill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-024-01381-z","article-title":"Characterizing culture's influence in land systems","volume":"7","author":"Hodel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250810","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.250810","article-title":"Policy principles for sustainable and just land systems","volume":"12","author":"Garrett","year":"2025","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2020.102096","article-title":"Fire risk perpetuates poverty and fire use among Amazonian smallholders","volume":"63","author":"Cammelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-7333(02)00062-8","article-title":"Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: a multi-level perspective and a case-study","volume":"31","author":"Geels","year":"2002","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1080\/03066150902820354","article-title":"A food regime genealogy","volume":"36","author":"McMichael","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Peasant Stud."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C27","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Sustainable agriculture reviews","author":"Tittonell","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13593-018-0550-2","article-title":"Characterizing diversity of food systems in view of sustainability transitions. a review","volume":"39","author":"Gait\u00e1n-Cremaschi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agron. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C29","volume-title":"Telecoupling: exploring land-use change in a globalised world","author":"Garrett","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.futures.2025.103701","article-title":"How crop models and government visions foreclose imaginaries of agroecological futures","volume":"174","author":"Johansson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Futures"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-012220-010228","article-title":"Forests and sustainable development in the Brazilian Amazon: history, trends, and future prospects","volume":"46","author":"Garrett","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoforum.2021.09.015","article-title":"Climate-smart cocoa governance risks entrenching old hegemonies in C\u00f4te d'Ivoire and Ghana: a multiple environmentality analysis","volume":"130","author":"Maguire-Rajpaul","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geoforum"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/03066159008438441","article-title":"Agricultural \u2018modernisation\u2019 and the era of structural adjustment: observations on sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"18","author":"Bernstein","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Peasant Stud."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-750X(90)90026-T","article-title":"Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: some lessons from the Malawian experience","volume":"18","author":"Lele","year":"1990","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-05873-180226","article-title":"Framing sustainability in a telecoupled world","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Soc."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-09831-220432","article-title":"Transforming governance in telecoupled food systems","volume":"22","author":"Eakin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Soc."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1038\/s43016-021-00297-7","article-title":"The problem with growing corporate concentration and power in the global food system","volume":"2","author":"Clapp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Food"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1111\/agec.70007","article-title":"Fostering healthy, equitable, resilient, and sustainable agri-food value chains","volume":"56","author":"Barrett","year":"2025","journal-title":"Agric. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-024-01296-9","article-title":"The role of midstream actors in advancing the sustainability of agri-food supply chains","volume":"7","author":"Grabs","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2021.102357","article-title":"Designing effective and equitable zero-deforestation supply chain policies","volume":"70","author":"Grabs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5613370","article-title":"Supply chain structures shape governance options and outcomes for deforestation-risk commodities across the tropics","author":"Lyons-White","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1007\/s12571-021-01209-0","article-title":"Small farms and development in sub-Saharan Africa: farming for food, for income or for lack of better options?","volume":"13","author":"Giller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Secur."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4324\/9781032649696-19","volume-title":"Pathways to African food security","author":"Giller","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s13593-016-0380-z","article-title":"Systemic perspectives on scaling agricultural innovations. a review","volume":"36","author":"Wigboldus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agron. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1093\/ajae\/aat018","article-title":"The welfare impacts of commodity price volatility: evidence from rural Ethiopia","volume":"95","author":"Bellemare","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Agric. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-020-00661-8","article-title":"Bundling innovations to transform agri-food systems","volume":"3","author":"Barrett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oneear.2020.09.014","article-title":"Maladaptation: when adaptation to climate change goes very wrong","volume":"3","author":"Schipper","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Earth"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1111\/agec.12766","article-title":"When my neighbors matter: spillover effects in the adoption of large-scale pesticide-free wheat production","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agric. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1080\/17565529.2023.2172313","article-title":"Diffusion of climate-resilient seeds and information: evidence from semi-arid regions of Ghana","volume":"15","author":"Mellon Bedi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clim. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2018.09.011","article-title":"Intensification in agriculture-forest frontiers: land use responses to development and conservation policies in Brazil","volume":"53","author":"Garrett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1093\/aepp\/ppu005","article-title":"The effects of agricultural technological progress on deforestation: what do we really know?","volume":"36","author":"Villoria","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2019.102764","article-title":"Scaling practices within agricultural innovation platforms: between pushing and pulling","volume":"179","author":"Totin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C53","volume-title":"Collection 10 of Amazonia Land Cover & Use Map Series","author":"Project MapBiomas"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-012-0443-3","article-title":"Estimating greenhouse gas emissions from cattle raising in Brazil","volume":"115","author":"Bustamante","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2014.06.001","article-title":"When enough should be enough: improving the use of current agricultural lands could meet production demands and spare natural habitats in Brazil","volume":"28","author":"Strassburg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Change"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2019.106359","article-title":"Amazonian farmers' response to fire policies and climate change","volume":"165","author":"Cammelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070764","article-title":"Translating fire impacts in southwestern Amazonia into economic costs","volume":"11","author":"Campanharo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1017\/S1742170519000280","article-title":"Assessing the economic viability of integrated crop\u2212livestock systems in Mato Grosso, Brazil","volume":"35","author":"dos Reis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Renew. Agric. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518747","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2025.1518747","article-title":"Integrated crop-livestock-forest systems: a path to improved agro-economic performance in the Brazilian Amazon and Cerrado","volume":"9","author":"dos Reis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C60","article-title":"Data from: reconciling cattle ranching and environmental conservation in the legal Brazilian Amazon.","author":"Valentim","year":"2010","journal-title":"IMAZON"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2012.03.001","article-title":"Land-saving approaches and beef production growth in Brazil","volume":"110","author":"Martha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2016.09.022","article-title":"Determinants of crop-livestock integration in Brazil: evidence from the household and regional levels","volume":"59","author":"Gil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14162340","article-title":"From traditionally extensive to sustainably intensive: a review on the path to a sustainable and inclusive beef farming in Brazil","volume":"14","author":"Pereira","year":"2024","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C64","volume-title":"Censo Agropecuaria 2017","author":"IBGE","year":"2017"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C65","first-page":"73","volume-title":"Caminhos para uma agricultura familiar sob bases ecol\u00f3gicas: produzindo com baixa emiss\u00e3o de carbono","author":"Valentim","year":"2015"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-09364-220327","article-title":"Explaining the persistence of low income and environmentally degrading land uses in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"22","author":"Garrett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Soc."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7560\/761346","volume-title":"Rainforest cowboys: the rise of ranching and cattle culture in western Amazonia","author":"Hoelle","year":"2015"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrurstud.2023.103041","article-title":"Rural credit acquisition for family farming in Brazil: evidence from the Legal Amazon","volume":"101","author":"Moreira-Dantas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Rural Stud."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2011.09.009","article-title":"Persistence of cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon: a spatial analysis of the rationale for beef production","volume":"29","author":"Bowman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31770","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2003270117","article-title":"The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports","volume":"117","author":"zu Ermgassen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5476","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33213-z","article-title":"Leakage does not fully offset soy supply-chain efforts to reduce deforestation in Brazil","volume":"13","author":"Villoria","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2014.10.008","article-title":"Adoption and development of integrated crop\u2013livestock\u2013forestry systems in Mato Grosso, Brazil","volume":"199","author":"Gil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064026","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ac6f70","article-title":"Sustainable intensification in the Brazilian cattle industry: the role for reduced slaughter age","volume":"17","author":"Skidmore","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C74","volume-title":"Ecosystem profile; Guinean forests of West Africa biodiversity hotspot","author":"Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203400340","volume-title":"Reframing deforestation: global analyses and local realities: studies in West Africa","author":"Fairhead","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024030","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/acad8e","article-title":"Transparency, traceability and deforestation in the Ivorian cocoa supply chain","volume":"18","author":"Renier","year":"2023","journal-title":"Env. Res Lett"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025006","DOI":"10.1088\/2976-601X\/add01b","article-title":"Direct and indirect deforestation for cocoa in the tropical moist forests of Ghana","volume":"2","author":"Renier","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2022.103473","article-title":"The cocoa yield gap in Ghana: a quantification and an analysis of factors that could narrow the gap","volume":"201","author":"Asante","year":"2022","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s12571-021-01227-y","article-title":"Cocoa eats the food: expansion of cocoa into food croplands in the Juabeso District, Ghana","volume":"14","author":"Ajagun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Secur."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s11625-014-0282-4","article-title":"Climate change, cocoa migrations and deforestation in West Africa: what does the past tell us about the future?","volume":"10","author":"Ruf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sustain. Sci."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2019.00057","article-title":"The ecological limits of poverty alleviation in an African forest-agriculture landscape","volume":"3","author":"Morel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-45635-0_4","volume-title":"Agroforestry as climate change adaptation: the case of cocoa farming in Ghana","author":"Bosselmann","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eja.2024.127463","article-title":"Deriving fertiliser recommendations for cocoa: an offtake model approach","volume":"164","author":"Vasquez-Zambrano","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Agron."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C84","first-page":"117","article-title":"An analysis of yield gap and some factors of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) yields in Ghana","volume":"2","author":"Aneani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sustain. Agric. Res."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732831","DOI":"10.3389\/fsufs.2021.732831","article-title":"A living income for cocoa producers in C\u00f4te d'Ivoire and Ghana?","volume":"5","author":"van Vliet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sustain. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.03.024","article-title":"Vulnerability to climate change of cocoa in West Africa: patterns, opportunities and limits to adaptation","volume":"556","author":"Schroth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.70266","article-title":"Existing sustainability interventions are insufficient to scale up cocoa agroforestry in West Africa","volume":"34","author":"Kouakou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-018-0062-8","article-title":"Climate-smart sustainable agriculture in low-to-intermediate shade agroforests","volume":"1","author":"Blaser","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1080\/17565529.2018.1442805","article-title":"On-farm cocoa yields increase with canopy cover of shade trees in two agro-ecological zones in Ghana","volume":"11","author":"Asare","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C90","article-title":"Is the implementation of cocoa companies\u2019 forest policies on track to effectively and equitably address deforestation in West Africa?","volume":"3","author":"Addoah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2020.10.012","article-title":"Poverty and climate change challenges for sustainable intensification of cocoa systems","volume":"47","author":"Boeckx","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074001","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ae860f","article-title":"Small-scale farmers critical to curbing deforestation linked to forest-risk commodities","volume":"21","author":"Celik","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14309","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41593-5","article-title":"Drivers of cocoa agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers around the Ta\u00ef National Park in southwestern C\u00f4te d'Ivoire","volume":"13","author":"Kouassi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C94","article-title":"Tenure security can help unlock agroforestry adoption in Ghana","author":"Dzudzor","journal-title":"J. Land Use Sci."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.5539\/jsd.v16n5p47","article-title":"Assessing the potential benefits and challenges of cocoa agroforestry adoption in Ghana's Western-North Region","volume":"16","author":"Baidoo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1111\/agec.12788","article-title":"Risk and ambiguity aversion: incentives or disincentives for adoption of improved agricultural land management practices?","volume":"54","author":"Hadera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agric. Econ."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.njas.2020.100332","article-title":"The role of shade trees in influencing farmers\u2019 adoption of cocoa agroforestry systems: insight from semi-deciduous rain forest agroecological zone of Ghana","volume":"92","author":"Kaba","year":"2020","journal-title":"NJAS - Wagening. J. Life Sci."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1007\/s10745-011-9392-0","article-title":"The myth of complex cocoa agroforests: the case of Ghana","volume":"39","author":"Ruf","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2021.105524","article-title":"Promoting cocoa agroforestry under conditions of separated ownership of land and trees: strengthening customary tenure institutions in Cameroon","volume":"108","author":"Folefack","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C100","first-page":".","article-title":"Existing sustainability interventions are insufficient to scale up cocoa agroforestry in West Africa","volume":"34","author":"Kouakou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13075","DOI":"10.3390\/su132313075","article-title":"Exploring barriers to agroforestry adoption by cocoa farmers in South-Western C\u00f4te d'Ivoire","volume":"13","author":"Kouassi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-121224-090229","article-title":"Conservation, development, and transformative change in the Upper Guinean Forests of West Africa","volume":"51","author":"Garrett","year":"2026","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10033","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37180-3","article-title":"Vulnerability of cocoa-based agroforestry systems to climate change in West Africa","volume":"13","author":"Ariza-Salamanca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C104","volume-title":"Production statistics","author":"FAO","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C105","volume-title":"Climate Stories | Ghana carbon credits","author":"World Bank"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C106","volume-title":"World Bank commits US$75M to rehabilitate Ghana cocoa farms and boost productivity","author":"Modern Ghana (Accra)","year":"2026"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1080\/1523908X.2021.1910020","article-title":"The effect of supply chain position on zero-deforestation commitments: evidence from the cocoa industry","volume":"23","author":"Carodenuto","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Policy Plan."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1525\/elementa.356","article-title":"Securing the future of US agriculture: the case for investing in new entry sustainable farmers","volume":"7","author":"Carlisle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elem. Sci. Anthr."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-36762-6_10","volume-title":"Food security and land use change under conditions of climatic variability: a multidimensional perspective","author":"Jupesta","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"033001","DOI":"10.1088\/2976-601X\/adf117","article-title":"Scaling out agroforestry and forest conservation in West Africa requires more transformative policy interventions in cocoa supply chains","volume":"2","author":"Cammelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Food Syst."},{"key":"2026102020122210900_RSOS260775C111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2310186121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2310186121","article-title":"Negotiating discord in sustainability transformations","volume":"121","author":"Patterson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Royal Society Open Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsos\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rsos.260775\/6172002\/rsos.260775.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsos\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rsos.260775\/6172002\/rsos.260775.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T00:12:39Z","timestamp":1792541559000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsos\/article\/13\/10\/260775\/483766\/Overcoming-barriers-to-sustainable-agricultural"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"references-count":111,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsos.260775","relation":{},"ISSN":["2054-5703"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2054-5703","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"article-number":"260775"}}