{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T06:08:29Z","timestamp":1790230109699,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1769","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,22]],"date-time":"2013-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1382400000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. R. Soc. B."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Co-infection may affect transmission and recovery from infection, but remains an understudied element of disease ecology, particularly with regard to antagonism between parasites sharing a host. Helminth and giardia infections are often endemic in the same populations and both occupy the small intestine; yet few studies have examined interactions between these parasites. We report on helminth\u2013giardia co-infections in a panel study of forager\u2013horticulturalists in the Bolivian lowlands. Parasites were identified in faecal samples from 3275 participants, collected during 5235 medical exams over 6 years. Longitudinal co-infection patterns were examined using logistic mixed and multi-state Markov models. The most prevalent infections were hookworm (56%),\n            <jats:italic>Giardia lamblia<\/jats:italic>\n            (30%) and\n            <jats:italic>Ascaris lumbricoides<\/jats:italic>\n            (15%). Cross-sectionally, hookworm and\n            <jats:italic>A. lumbricoides<\/jats:italic>\n            were negatively associated with\n            <jats:italic>G. lamblia<\/jats:italic>\n            (OR = 0.60; OR = 0.65, respectively). Longitudinally, giardia infection was less likely in helminth-infected individuals (HR: 0.46). Infection with helminths was also less likely for individuals infected with giardia (HR: 0.71). Finally, treatment with mebendazole reduced subsequent hookworm infections, but resulted in a marginal increase in the odds of\n            <jats:italic>G. lamblia<\/jats:italic>\n            infection. Our results provide evidence for an antagonistic relationship between helminths and giardia, and suggest that co-infection should be considered in disease transmission models and treatment decisions.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.1671","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,28]],"date-time":"2013-08-28T09:08:57Z","timestamp":1377680937000},"page":"20131671","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Antagonism between two intestinal parasites in humans: the importance of co-infection for infection risk and recovery dynamics"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"280","author":[{"given":"Aaron D.","family":"Blackwell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210, USA"},{"name":"Tsimane Health and Life History Project, San Borja, 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