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Affective and cognitive processes can alter contest dynamics, but the interaction between such effects and that of differing RHPs has not been adjudged. We investigated effects of omission of expected reward (OER) on competing individuals with contrasting RHPs. Small and large rainbow trout (<jats:italic>Oncorhynchus mykiss<\/jats:italic>) were conditioned to associate a light with reward. Thereafter, the reward was omitted for half of the fish prior to a contest between individuals possessing a 36\u201340% difference in RHP. Small control individuals displayed submissive behaviour and virtually no aggression. By contrast, small OER individuals were more aggressive, and two out of 11 became socially dominant. Increased aggression in small OER individuals was accompanied by increased serotonin levels in the dorsomedial pallium (proposed amygdala homologue), but no changes in limbic dopamine neurochemistry were observed in OER-exposed individuals. The behavioural and physiological response to OER in fish indicates that frustration is an evolutionarily conserved affective state. Moreover, our results indicate that aggressive motivation to reward unpredictability affects low RHP individuals strongest.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2014.0300","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,23]],"date-time":"2014-04-23T13:26:44Z","timestamp":1398259604000},"page":"20140300","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Frustrative reward omission increases aggressive behaviour of inferior fighters"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"281","author":[{"given":"Marco A.","family":"Vindas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, \u00c5s 1432, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1041, Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ida 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