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R. Soc. B."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Most studies of virulence of infection focus on pairwise host\u2013parasite interactions. However, hosts are almost universally co-infected by several parasite strains and\/or genotypes of the same or different species. While theory predicts that co-infection favours more virulent parasite genotypes through intensified competition for host resources, knowledge of the effects of genotype by genotype (G \u00d7 G) interactions between unrelated parasite species on virulence of co-infection is limited. Here, we tested such a relationship by challenging rainbow trout with replicated bacterial strains and fluke genotypes both singly and in all possible pairwise combinations. We found that virulence (host mortality) was higher in co-infections compared with single infections. Importantly, we also found that the overall virulence was dependent on the genetic identity of the co-infecting partners so that the outcome of co-infection could not be predicted from the respective virulence of single infections. 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