{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T18:45:12Z","timestamp":1781635512154,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1861","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,23]],"date-time":"2017-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1503446400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. R. Soc. B."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Digit reduction is a major trend that characterizes horse evolution, but its causes and consequences have rarely been quantitatively tested. Using beam analysis on fossilized centre metapodials, we tested how locomotor bone stresses changed with digit reduction and increasing body size across the horse lineage. Internal bone geometry was captured from 13 fossil horse genera that covered the breadth of the equid phylogeny and the spectrum of digit reduction and body sizes, from<jats:italic>Hyracotherium<\/jats:italic>to<jats:italic>Equus<\/jats:italic>. To account for the load-bearing role of side digits, a novel, continuous measure of digit reduction was also established\u2014toe reduction index (TRI). Our results show that without accounting for side digits, three-toed horses as late as<jats:italic>Parahippus<\/jats:italic>would have experienced physiologically untenable bone stresses. Conversely, when side digits are modelled as load-bearing, species at the base of the horse radiation through<jats:italic>Equus<\/jats:italic>probably maintained a similar safety factor to fracture stress. We conclude that the centre metapodial compensated for evolutionary digit reduction and body mass increases by becoming more resistant to bending through substantial positive allometry in internal geometry. These results lend support to two historical hypotheses: that increasing body mass selected for a single, robust metapodial rather than several smaller ones; and that, as horse limbs became elongated, the cost of inertia from the side toes outweighed their utility for stabilization or load-bearing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2017.1174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,23]],"date-time":"2017-08-23T09:12:09Z","timestamp":1503479529000},"page":"20171174","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Mechanics of evolutionary digit reduction in fossil horses (Equidae)"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"284","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3715-812X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brianna K.","family":"McHorse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA"},{"name":"Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3303-8737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew A.","family":"Biewener","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Bedford, MA 01730, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0717-1841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie E.","family":"Pierce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_7_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724634.2010.521216"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1071\/ZO09102"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12336"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.09.037"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0482"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-142X.2009.00372.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/347066a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13496"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13289"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.20532"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_12_2","unstructured":"Shapiro MD Shubin NH Downs JP. 2007 Limb diversity and digit reduction in reptilian evolution. 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