{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T09:56:26Z","timestamp":1789898186190,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1883","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]],"date-time":"2018-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1532476800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000008","name":"David and Lucile Packard Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000008","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. R. Soc. B."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Disciplines such as business and economics often rely on the assumption of rationality when explaining complex human behaviours. However, growing evidence suggests that behaviour may concurrently be influenced by infectious microorganisms. The protozoan<jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>infects an estimated 2 billion people worldwide and has been linked to behavioural alterations in humans and other vertebrates. Here we integrate primary data from college students and business professionals with national-level information on cultural attitudes towards business to test the hypothesis that<jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>infection influences individual- as well as societal-scale entrepreneurship activities. Using a saliva-based assay, we found that students (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>= 1495) who tested IgG positive for<jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>exposure were 1.4\u00d7 more likely to major in business and 1.7\u00d7 more likely to have an emphasis in \u2018management and entrepreneurship' over other business-related emphases. Among professionals attending entrepreneurship events,<jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>-positive individuals were 1.8\u00d7 more likely to have started their own business compared with other attendees (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>= 197). Finally, after synthesizing and combining country-level databases on<jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>infection from the past 25 years with the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor of entrepreneurial activity, we found that infection prevalence was a consistent, positive predictor of entrepreneurial activity and intentions at the national scale, regardless of whether previously identified economic covariates were included. Nations with higher infection also had a lower fraction of respondents citing \u2018fear of failure' in inhibiting new business ventures. While correlational, these results highlight the linkage between parasitic infection and complex human behaviours, including those relevant to business, entrepreneurship and economic productivity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]],"date-time":"2018-07-25T07:27:43Z","timestamp":1532503663000},"page":"20180822","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Risky business: linking<i>Toxoplasma gondii<\/i>infection and entrepreneurship behaviours across individuals and countries"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"285","author":[{"given":"Stefanie K.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus A.","family":"Fitza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Frankfurt School of Finance and Management, Frankfurt, Germany and Nord University Business School, Bod\u00f8, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Lerner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Deusto Business School, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dana M.","family":"Calhoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marissa A.","family":"Beldon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elsa T.","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Management, College of Business, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7997-5390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pieter T. J.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_7_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702309114"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1319543110"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1402846111"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2010.01664.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-090110-102830"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1406755111"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.296.5567.490"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11234"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199642236.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1203190109"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420092370","volume-title":"Toxoplasmosis of animals and humans","author":"Dubey JP","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2008.03.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3641"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2000.1182"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2016.01.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-10926-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2014.09.019"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-2-11"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbs043"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2013.01.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2017.09.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.02465-14"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_24_2","article-title":"Moderation of the relationship between Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and trait Impulsivity in younger men by the Phenylalanine-Tyrosine ratio","author":"Peng X","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-43978-4_3464","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of parasitology","author":"Flegr J","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2016.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ijmr.12052"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10887-013-9089-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12295"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-12-77"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_32_2","unstructured":"McDowell A Cox NJ. 2004 How do you fit a model when the dependent variable is a proportion. See http:\/\/www.stata.com\/support\/faqs\/stat\/logit.html (accessed 13 June 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1321202111"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2004.13670963"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036146"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6520.2011.00470.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001456"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbl074"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00124-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbl073"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.074716"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.13006"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023866"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/etap.12165"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1610.091674"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis508"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0883-9026(94)00017-O"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.99.5.1808"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_49_2","first-page":"11","article-title":"Innovation and growth: how business contributes to society","volume":"24","author":"Ahlstrom D","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Perspect."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sej.96"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sej.26"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_52_2","first-page":"57","article-title":"Strategic entrepreneurship: creating value for individuals, organizations, and society","volume":"25","author":"Hitt MA","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Perspect."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2008.0094"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.2307\/1556423","article-title":"Country institutional profiles: unlocking entrepreneurial phenomena","volume":"43","author":"Busenitz LW","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acad. Manage. J."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbusvent.2015.02.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbvi.2016.07.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_57_2","unstructured":"Johnson SK Fitza MA Lerner DA Calhoun DM Beldon MA Chan ET Johnson PTJ. 2018 Data from: Risky business: linking Toxoplasma gondii infection and entrepreneurship behaviours across individuals and countries. Dryad Digital Repository (doi:10.5061\/dryad.gd19rr3)"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]],"date-time":"2023-09-03T23:13:43Z","timestamp":1693782823000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1883","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rspb.2018.0822","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8452","1471-2954"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8452","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2954","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-04-13","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2018-06-28","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2018-07-25","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}