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Using morphological measurements in embryos and fry, gene expression analysis and hybrid crosses, we describe divergence in reproductive strategy between two closely related species of swordtail fish (Xiphophorus), which have internal fertilization and give birth to free-swimming fry. We find that one species, Xiphophorus malinche, has evolved larger offspring than its closest relative Xiphophorus birchmanni and dwarfs the offspring size of other species in the genus. The fry of X. malinche are more resilient to starvation than X. birchmanni, hinting that the evolution of large offspring size could be an adaptation to the challenging environments in which X. malinche are born. We also find evidence that X. malinche mothers provision nutrients to their offspring during embryonic development, the first time this process has been documented in the Xiphophorus genus. Moreover, in the ovary, we observe differential regulation of genes associated with maternal nutrient provisioning in other groups that use this reproductive strategy. Finally, we generated hybrid crosses between X. malinche and X. birchmanni to explore the impact of genetics and maternal environment on offspring size, finding that offspring size is at least in part genetically determined. Intriguingly, we find a low rate of survival in one cross direction and investigate the links between reproductive strategy and this asymmetric hybrid incompatibility.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2025.1945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:14:45Z","timestamp":1770768885000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Recent evolution of large offspring size and post-fertilization nutrient provisioning in swordtails"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"293","author":[{"given":"Cheyenne Y.","family":"Payne","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University 1 , , ,","place":["Stanford, CA, USA"],"department":["Department of Biology"]},{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas de las Huastecas \u2018Aguazarca\u2019, AC 2 , , ,","place":["Calnali, Hidalgo, Mexico"]},{"name":"University of California Santa Cruz 3 , , ,","place":["Santa Cruz, CA, USA"],"department":["Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology"]},{"name":"National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4 , , ,","place":["Santa Cruz, CA, USA"],"department":["Southwest Fisheries Science Center"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Derek","family":"Ly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Riverside 5 , , ,","place":["Riverside, CA, USA"],"department":["Department of Biology"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rebecca A.","family":"Rodriguez-Soto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University 1 , , ,","place":["Stanford, CA, USA"],"department":["Department of Biology"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel L.","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University 1 , , ,","place":["Stanford, CA, USA"],"department":["Department of Biology"]},{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas de 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