{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T04:26:11Z","timestamp":1769228771428,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"2273","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/-\/media\/journals\/author\/Licence-to-Publish-20062019-final.pdf"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715558400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000271","name":"Science and Technology Facilities Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000844","name":"European Space Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000844","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Exposure of the Hubble Space Telescope to space in low Earth orbit resulted in numerous hypervelocity impacts by cosmic dust (micrometeoroids) and anthropogenic particles (orbital debris) on the solar arrays and the radiator shield of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, both subsequently returned to Earth. Solar cells preserve residues from smaller cosmic dust (and orbital debris) but give less reliable information from larger particles. Here, we present images and analyses from electron, ion and X-ray fluorescence microscopes for larger impact features (millimetre- to centimetre-scale) on the radiator shield. Validated by laboratory experiments, these allow interpretation of composition, probable origin and likely dimensions of the larger impactors. The majority (~90%) of impacts by grains greater than 50 \u03bcm in size were made by micrometeoroids, dominated by magnesium- and iron-rich silicates and iron sulfides, metallic iron-nickel and chromium-rich spinel similar to that in ordinary chondrite meteorites of asteroid origin. Our re-evaluation of the largest impact features shows substantially fewer large orbital debris impacts than reported by earlier authors. Mismatch to the NASA ORDEM and ESA MASTER models of particle populations in orbit may be partly due to model overestimation of orbital debris flux and underestimation of larger micrometeoroid numbers.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Dust in the Solar System and beyond\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2023.0194","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T07:05:42Z","timestamp":1715583942000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Cosmic dust impacts on the Hubble Space Telescope"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"382","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8575-8008","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"A. T.","family":"Kearsley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Science Innovation Platforms, Natural History Museum , London SW7 5BD, UK"},{"name":"Centre for Planetary Science and Astronomy, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Kent , Canterbury CT2 7NH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R. P.","family":"Webb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ion Beam Centre, University of Surrey , Surrey GU2 7XH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4957-8175","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"G. W.","family":"Grime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ion Beam Centre, University of Surrey , Surrey GU2 7XH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1441-4883","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"P. 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