{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:11:01Z","timestamp":1789031461337,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"2329","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000271","name":"UK Science and Technology Facilities Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["ST\/Y002725\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST\/Y002725\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005416","name":"Research Council of Norway","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["332523"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["332523"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005416","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Union","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101142677"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101142677"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000271","name":"STFC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UKRI1207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UKRI1207"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013341","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/Y001052\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/Y001052\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Ions and electrons accelerated to high energies during flares and coronal mass ejections at the Sun may escape the solar atmosphere and, guided by the interplanetary magnetic fields, propagate through space to near-Earth locations. These Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) can be detected directly by spacecraft instrumentation. The highest energy SEPs may also propagate through the geomagnetic field and precipitate to low atmospheric heights, producing secondary particles including neutrons and protons that trigger the formation of cosmogenic radionuclides. The space weather effects associated with the SEP ion population (for the most part protons) consist principally of radiation risk to aviation, humans in space and spacecraft. This paper focuses on the risks to aviation and astronauts and emphasizes how the parameters of the SEP event, including fluence and spectrum, affect radiation doses. Space weather effects for events that took place in recent decades, for which a large body of measurements and models exist, are discussed. SEP events of extreme magnitudes, such as those extrapolated from radionuclide data from the distant past are then considered and first estimates of the associated radiation at aviation altitudes and in space presented. These are worst-case estimates derived within the assumption that the radionuclide spike was caused by a single SEP event and that the particle spectrum and geomagnetic conditions were the same during all events.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue \u2018Radiocarbon and cosmic radiation events\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2025.0259","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:57:03Z","timestamp":1789030623000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Radiation doses during extreme solar energetic particle events"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"384","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7837-5780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Dalla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeremiah Horrocks Institute, University of Lancashire 1 , Preston, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5622-4829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantin","family":"Herbst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Planetary Habitability, Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo 2 , Oslo, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2772-3631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raimund","family":"Muscheler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lund University 3 , Lund, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2061-2453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathew J.","family":"Owens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Meteorology, University of Reading 4 , Reading, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-017-0382-4","article-title":"Acceleration and propagation of solar energetic particles","volume":"212","author":"Klein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-4004.2007.48611.x","article-title":"The rough guide to the moon and mars","volume":"48","author":"Lockwood","year":"2007","journal-title":"Astron. Geophys."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149014","DOI":"10.3389\/fspas.2023.1149014","article-title":"Improved space weather observations and modeling for aviation radiation","volume":"10","author":"Bain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Astron. Space Sci."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1002\/swe.20032","article-title":"Extreme space weather\u2014a report published by the UK royal academy of engineering","volume":"11","author":"Cannon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C5","volume-title":"Space weather and critical infrastructures: findings and outlook","author":"Krausmann","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2022.08.006","article-title":"Review of solar energetic particle prediction models","volume":"72","author":"Whitman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-025-01211-4","article-title":"Predicting solar energetic particles: solar storm watch - preparing for space odyssey","volume":"221","author":"Papaioannou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2218","DOI":"10.1109\/23.903756","article-title":"Characterizing solar proton energy spectra for radiation effects applications","volume":"47","author":"Xapsos","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2005.01.111","article-title":"The Carrington event: possible doses to crews in space from a comparable event","volume":"38","author":"Townsend","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A20","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2014017","article-title":"The magnitude and effects of extreme solar particle events","volume":"4","author":"Jiggens","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17091","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95235-9","article-title":"Probabilistic risk assessment of solar particle events considering the cost of countermeasures to reduce the aviation radiation dose","volume":"11","author":"Fujita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2024SW003885","DOI":"10.1029\/2024SW003885","article-title":"Relationship between nm data and radiation dose at aviation altitudes during GLE events","volume":"22","author":"Larsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2007.10.021","article-title":"The extreme solar cosmic ray particle event on 20 January 2005 and its influence on the radiation dose rate at aircraft altitude","volume":"391","author":"B\u00fctikofer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2025SW004662","DOI":"10.1029\/2025SW004662","article-title":"Simulations of radiological dose quantities in astronauts during solar energetic particle events across modern space history","volume":"24","author":"Blunier","year":"2026","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11123","article-title":"A signature of cosmic-ray increase in AD 774\u2013775 from tree rings in Japan","volume":"486","author":"Miyake","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8611","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9611","article-title":"Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of AD 774\/5 and 993\/4","volume":"6","author":"Mekhaldi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27891-4","article-title":"Cosmogenic radionuclides reveal an extreme solar particle storm near a solar minimum 9125\u00a0years BP","volume":"13","author":"Paleari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20220206","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2022.0206","article-title":"A radiocarbon spike at 14 300 cal yr BP in subfossil trees provides the impulse response function of the global carbon cycle during the Late Glacial","volume":"381","author":"Bard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-023-01018-1","article-title":"Extreme solar events: setting up a paradigm","volume":"219","author":"Usoskin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022JA031186","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JA031186","article-title":"Multiproxy reconstructions of integral energy spectra for extreme solar particle events of 7176 BCE, 660 BCE, 775 CE, and 994 CE","volume":"128","author":"Koldobskiy","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2017.2761258","article-title":"Extreme atmospheric radiation environments and single event effects","volume":"65","author":"Dyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2023020","article-title":"Assessment of the radiation risk at flight altitudes for an extreme solar particle storm of 774 AD","volume":"13","author":"Mishev","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C23","first-page":"113","article-title":"Everything you wanted to know about space radiation but were afraid to ask","volume":"39","author":"Chancellor","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health C"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(03)90374-7","article-title":"Calculations and observations of solar particle enhancements to the radiation environment at aircraft altitudes","volume":"32","author":"Dyer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C25","first-page":"275","volume-title":"Space weather","author":"Kiefer","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C26","first-page":"2","article-title":"The 2007 recommendations of the international commission on radiological protection","volume":"37","author":"ICRP","year":"2007","journal-title":"ICRP Publication 103. Ann. ICRP"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2018.11.005","article-title":"Flight safety implications of the extreme solar proton event of 23 February 1956","volume":"63","author":"Copeland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022SW003155","DOI":"10.1029\/2022SW003155","article-title":"A new model for nowcasting the aviation radiation environment with comparisons to in situ measurements during GLEs","volume":"20","author":"Hands","year":"2022","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024SW004199","DOI":"10.1029\/2024SW004199","article-title":"Radiation impact of the halloween GLE events during the October-November 2003 period","volume":"23","author":"Larsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4691","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-014-0606-7","article-title":"Fluence ordering of solar energetic proton events using cosmogenic radionuclide data","volume":"289","author":"Kovaltsov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2025.119383","article-title":"New SOCOL:14C-Ex model reveals that the Late-Glacial radiocarbon spike in 12350 BC was caused by the record-strong extreme solar storm","volume":"661","author":"Golubenko","year":"2025","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A132","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/202040058","article-title":"New reconstruction of event-integrated spectra (spectral fluences) for major solar energetic particle events","volume":"647","author":"Koldobskiy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW001921","article-title":"The solar particle event on 10-13 September 2017: spectral reconstruction and calculation of the radiation exposure in aviation and space","volume":"16","author":"Matthi\u00e4","year":"2018","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"2026091004565694800_RSTA20250259C34","article-title":"Supplementary material from: Radiation doses during extreme solar energetic particle events","author":"Dalla","year":"2026"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsta\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rsta.2025.0259\/6165203\/rsta.2025.0259.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsta\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rsta.2025.0259\/6165203\/rsta.2025.0259.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T08:57:08Z","timestamp":1789030628000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rsta\/article\/384\/2329\/20250259\/483257\/Radiation-doses-during-extreme-solar-energetic"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2329","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsta.2025.0259","relation":{},"ISSN":["1364-503X","1471-2962"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1364-503X","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2962","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"article-number":"20250259"}}