{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T12:00:25Z","timestamp":1767355225442,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1251","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1990,6,30]],"date-time":"1990-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":646704000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1990,6,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The history of onchocerciasis control in Africa and the genesis of the WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa (OCP) are briefly reviewed. The importance of experience gained in anti-locust campaigns in helping to plan the OCP is stressed. Members of the Simulium damnosum species complex are the vectors of onchocerciasis, which OCP is controlling with insecticide treatments on the stretches of rivers where the Simulium breed. Migrations of flies have been responsible for reinfestations of controlled areas and the spread of insecticide resistance. The management of these problems and related research are described, but it is emphasized that despite setbacks OCP is achieving its aims. A strategy for the future is outlined: vector control supplemented by chemotherapy is expected to continue until the year 2004.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1990.0140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,12,15]],"date-time":"2006-12-15T17:38:29Z","timestamp":1166204309000},"page":"721-729","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["The WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme: Retrospect and prospects"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"328","author":[{"given":"R.","family":"Le Berre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J. F.","family":"Walsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"B.","family":"Philippon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Poudiougo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J. E. E.","family":"Henderickx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Guillet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"S\u00e9k\u00e9t\u00e9li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Quill\u00e9v\u00e9r\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Grunewald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R. A.","family":"Cheke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"WHO Onchocerciasis Control Programme in West Africa, B. P. 549, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, U. K."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","reference":[{"key":"p_1","first-page":"37","article-title":"The reappearance rate of increase and distribution of the micro-filariae of Onchocerca volvulus following treatment with diethylcarbamazine. Trans. R. Soc. trop","volume":"51","author":"Duke B. O. L.","year":"1957","journal-title":"Med."},{"key":"p_2","first-page":"143","article-title":"The Onchocerca volvulus transmission potentials and associated patterns of Onchocerciasis at four Cameroon Sudan-Savannah villages","volume":"26","author":"Duke B. O. L.","year":"1975","journal-title":"Tropenmed. Parasit."},{"key":"p_3","unstructured":"Guillet P. Escaffre H. Ouedraogo M. & Quillevere D. 1980 Mise en evidence d'une resistance au temephos dans le complexe Simulium damnosum ( Parasitol. 18 291-298."},{"key":"p_4","unstructured":"S .sanctipauli et S. soubrense) en Cote d'Ivoire. Cah. O RSTO M ser. Ent. med."},{"key":"p_5","first-page":"518","article-title":"Detection of resistance to temephos and chlorphoxim in Simulium damnosum s.l. by topical application to adults","volume":"44","author":"Kurtak D. C.","year":"1984","journal-title":"Mosquito News"},{"key":"p_6","first-page":"204","article-title":"Contribution a l'etude biologique et ecologique de Simulium damnosum Theobald, 1903 (Diptera: Simuliidae)","volume":"17","author":"Le Berre R.","year":"1966","journal-title":"Mem. O R STO M"},{"key":"p_7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1979.0061"},{"key":"p_8","first-page":"75","article-title":"The eradication of neavei from","volume":"19","author":"McMahon J. P.","year":"1958","journal-title":"Kenya. Bull. Wld Hlth Org."},{"key":"p_9","first-page":"1118","article-title":"Etude des populations de Simulium damnosum Theobald, 1903 (Diptera: Simuliidae) en zone de gites non permanents","volume":"58","author":"Ovazza M.","year":"1965","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. Path. exot."},{"key":"p_10","unstructured":"Philippon B. 1977 Etude de la transmission d 'Onchocercavolvulus (Leuckart 1893) ( Onchocercidae) par Simulium damnosum Theobald 1903 (Diptera: Simuliidae) en Afrique tropicale. Trav. Docums O RSTO M 63 308 p."},{"key":"p_11","unstructured":"Quillevere D. 1979 Contribution a l'etude des caracteristiques taxonomiques bioecologiques et vectrices des mcmbres du complexe Simulium damnosum presents en Cote d'Ivoire. Trav. Docums O RSTO M 109 304 p."},{"key":"p_12","unstructured":"Vajime C. G. & Dunbar R. W. 1975 Chromosomal identification of eight species of the subgenus Edwardsellum near and including Simulium ( 111-138."},{"key":"p_13","unstructured":"Edwardsellum)damnosum Theobald (Diptera: Simuliidae). Tropenmed. Parasit. 26"},{"key":"p_14","first-page":"316","article-title":"Evidence of reduced susceptibility to DDT in controlling Simulium damnosum on the river","volume":"43","author":"Walsh J. F.","year":"1970","journal-title":"Niger. Bull. Wld Hlth Org."},{"key":"p_15","first-page":"123","article-title":"Anthropophily, zoophily and roles in onchocerciasis transmission of the Djodji form of Simulium sanctipauli and S. squamosum in a forest zone of Togo","volume":"39","author":"Cheke R. A.","year":"1988","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasit."},{"key":"p_16","first-page":"479","article-title":"Infections with Onchocerca volvulus in different members of the Simulium damnosum complex in Togo and Benin. Z. ang","volume":"72","author":"Garms R.","year":"1985","journal-title":"Zool."},{"key":"p_17","first-page":"457","article-title":"Seasonal extension of the breeding range of Simulium sanctipauli from forest into savanna in eastern Ghana and Togo. Z. ang","volume":"76","author":"Garms R.","year":"1989","journal-title":"Zool."},{"key":"p_18","unstructured":"Garms R. & Walsh J. F. 1987 The migration and dispersal of black flies: Simulium damnosum s.l. the main vector of human onchocerciasis. In Black flies ecology population management and annotated world list (ed. K. C. Kim & R. W. Merritt) pp. 201-214. University Park Pennsylvania and London Pennsylvania State University."},{"key":"p_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Post R. J. 1986 The cytotaxonomy of 191-207. Simuliumsanctipauli and Simulium soubrense (Diptera: Simuliidae). Genetica 69","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00133522"},{"key":"p_20","first-page":"57","article-title":"Entomological aspects and results of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme","volume":"38","author":"Walsh J. F.","year":"1987","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasit."},{"key":"p_21","unstructured":"J. B. D avies ( MedicalResearch Council and School of Tropical Medicine Liverpool ). I"},{"key":"p_22","unstructured":"congratulate Dr Le Berre for his summary of what is a vast complicated and long-term control"},{"key":"p_23","unstructured":"exercise. The World Health Organization and the staff of the Onchocerciasis Control"},{"key":"p_24","unstructured":"Programme (OCP) past and present deserve recognition for managing to keep the"},{"key":"p_25","unstructured":"Programme going for 15 years in the face of a constant onslaught of problems both fiscal"},{"key":"p_26","unstructured":"logistic and biological. As I know from my 6-year involvement in the Vector Control Unit one"},{"key":"p_27","unstructured":"lives from day to day never knowing what surprises and set-backs the next day will reveal. In"},{"key":"p_28","unstructured":"this respect the controllers of locusts and grasshoppers are to be envied. Simulium is there all"},{"key":"p_29","unstructured":"the year round. There are no periods of aestivation and no years of recession during which one"},{"key":"p_30","unstructured":"can relax and take stock. I would like to highlight some of the evidence for less dramatic movements by members of"},{"key":"p_31","unstructured":"the S. damnosum complex than those long-distance migrations of the `savanna' cytospecies"},{"key":"p_32","unstructured":"(usually called reinvasion) that have been touched on by Dr Le Berre and about which we will"},{"key":"p_33","unstructured":"hear more from Dr Baker. These smaller movements appear to be most evident in the forest zones adjacent to and south"},{"key":"p_34","unstructured":"of the OCP which are inhabited by the `forest' cytospecies of the S. sanctipauli subcomplex."},{"key":"p_35","unstructured":"Examples include: (i) In 1966 Dr Le Berre (1966) recorded what he described as `radial"},{"key":"p_36","unstructured":"dispersal ' of blackflies for distances of up to 41 km westwards from the Bandama River in Cote"},{"key":"p_37","unstructured":"d'Ivoire (ii) In Sierra Leone we have observed S. damnosum s.l. biting at villages in the coastal"},{"key":"p_38","unstructured":"swamp grasslands only 10 km from the sea and 25-30 km south of the nearest breeding sites."},{"key":"p_39","unstructured":"These flies only appear in December when the dry `harmattan ' wind is blowing from the north"},{"key":"p_40","unstructured":"and it seems that flies from the inland breeding sites are thus being carried southwards by these"},{"key":"p_41","unstructured":"winds. S. soubrense `B' is probably the species involved. Hypo-meso endemic onchocerciasis"},{"key":"p_42","unstructured":"exists in these areas and we have recorded biting rates of 70 flies per day and a Monthly"},{"key":"p_43","unstructured":"Transmission Potential of over 300. Dr Walsh has just referred to a westward movement of"},{"key":"p_44","unstructured":"forest flies of the `Beffa' form from Nigeria to Benin. No doubt there are many other examples."},{"key":"p_45","unstructured":"The overall impression is one of small-scale movements of flies in all directions. Most probably"},{"key":"p_46","unstructured":"wind patterns are the main vehicle for this dispersal. It is possible that the cumulative effect of such movements over several years was responsible"},{"key":"p_47","unstructured":"for the eastwards spread of temephos-resistant flies from the Bandama River in Cote d'Ivoire to"},{"key":"p_48","unstructured":"the untreated rivers in Ghana between 1980 and 1983 (Meredith al. 1986). The distance"},{"key":"p_49","unstructured":"involved in this case was about 300 km. I would like to remind ourselves not to be too complacent over the future of the OCP. The"},{"key":"p_50","unstructured":"fact that Burkina Faso has not been treated with insecticides since 1987 is good news indeed"},{"key":"p_51","unstructured":"and we all hope that this condition will continue. However even if all sources o f `savanna'"},{"key":"p_52","unstructured":"cytospecies are eliminated what are the risks of repopulation of areas like the headwaters of the"},{"key":"p_53","unstructured":"Black Volta near Bobo Dioulasso by `forest' species from the south (such as S. which"},{"key":"p_54","unstructured":"was present in the area before OCP) ? We must now ask our epidemiological modellers what"},{"key":"p_55","unstructured":"might happen if some of these new arrivals were to be infected. Could they start up new foci"},{"key":"p_56","unstructured":"of the disease and how would we detect such an introduction in its early stages?"},{"key":"p_57","unstructured":"Le Berre R. 1966 Contribution a l'etude biologique et ecologique de Simulium damnosum Theobald 1903 (Diptera Simuliidae). Mem. O RSTO M . 17. (204 pages.)"},{"key":"p_58","first-page":"290","article-title":"Following movements of resistant populations of Simulium soubrense\/ sanctipauli (Diptera: Simuliidae) by means of chromosome inversions","volume":"37","author":"Meredith S. E. O.","year":"1986","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Parasit."}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.1990.0140","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/328\/1251\/721\/82160\/rstb.1990.0140.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/328\/1251\/721\/82160\/rstb.1990.0140.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T11:57:40Z","timestamp":1767355060000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/328\/1251\/721\/18141\/The-WHO-Onchocerciasis-Control-Programme"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1990,6,30]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1251","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1990,6,30]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.1990.0140","relation":{},"ISSN":["0080-4622","2054-0280"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0080-4622"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2054-0280"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1990,6,30]]}}}