{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T21:35:38Z","timestamp":1783114538235,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1359","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1997,9,29]],"date-time":"1997-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":875491200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1997,9,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The interaction of protozoan parasites with innate host defences is critical in determining the character of the subsequent infection. The initial steps in the encounter of\n                    <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    with the vertebrate immune system provide a striking example of this important aspect of the host\u2013parasite relationship. In immunocompetent individuals this intracellular protozoan produces an asymptomatic chronic infection as part of its strategy for transmission. Nevertheless,\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    is inherently a highly virulent pathogen. The rapid induction by the parasite of a potent cell\u2013mediated immune response that both limits its growth and drives conversion to a dormant cyst stage explains this apparent paradox. Studies with gene\u2013deficient mice have demonstrated the interleukin\u201312 (IL\u201312)\u2013dependent production of interferon gamma (IFN\u2013gamma) to be of paramount importance in controlling early parasite growth. However, this seems to be independent of nitric oxide production as mice deficient in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and tumour necrosis factor receptor were able to control early growth of\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    , although they later succumbed to infection. Nitric oxide does, however, seem to be important in controlling persistent infection; treating chronic infection with iNOS metabolic inhibitors results in disease reactivation. Preliminary evidence implicates neutrophils in effector pathways against this parasite distinct from that described for macrophages. Once initiated, IL\u201312\u2013dependent IFN\u2013gamma production in synergy with other proinflammatory cytokines can positively feed back on itself to induce \u2018cytokine shock\u2019. Regulatory cytokines, particularly IL\u201310, are essential to down\u2013regulate inflammation and limit host pathology.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1997.0120","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,10,1]],"date-time":"2002-10-01T13:23:02Z","timestamp":1033478582000},"page":"1355-1359","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Mechanisms of innate resistance to\n                    <i>Toxoplasma gondii<\/i>\n                    infection"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"352","author":[{"given":"J.","family":"Alexander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, University of Strathclyde31 Taylor Street, Glasgow G4 0NRUK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T. M.","family":"Scharton-Kersten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD 20892USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G.","family":"Yap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD 20892USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C. W.","family":"Roberts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, University of Strathclyde31 Taylor Street, Glasgow G4 0NRUK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"F. Y.","family":"Liew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, University of GlasgowGlasgow G11 6NTUK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Sher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD 20892USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1997,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"p_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander J. & Hunter C. 1997 Immunoregulation during toxoplasmosis. in Chemical immunology (ed. F. Y. Liew) Basel: Kargern. (In the press.)","DOI":"10.1159\/000058701"},{"key":"p_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander J. Jebbari H. Bluethmann H. Satoskar A. & Roberts C. W. 1996 Immunological control of Toxoplasma gondii and appropriate vaccine design. Curr. 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