{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T14:17:50Z","timestamp":1780409870116,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":166,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1372","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]],"date-time":"1998-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":901670400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>We present DNA\u2013hybridization data on 21 amniotes and two anurans showing that discrimination is obtained among most of these at the class and lower levels. Trees generated from these data largely agree with conventional views, for example in not associating birds and mammals. However, the sister relationships found here of the monotremes to marsupials, and of turtles to the alligator, are surprising results which are nonetheless consistent with the results of some other studies. The Marsupionta hypothesis of Gregory is reviewed, as are opinions about the placement of chelonians. Anatomical and reproductive data considered by Gregory do not unequivocally preclude a marsupial\u2013monotreme special relationship, and there is other recent evidence for placing turtles within the Diapsida. We conclude that the evidential meaning of the molecular data is as shown in the trees, but that the topologies may be influenced by a base\u2013compositional bias producing a seemingly slow evolutionary rate in monotremes, or by algorithmic artefacts (in the case of turtles as well).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1998.0278","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,26]],"date-time":"2002-07-26T19:55:43Z","timestamp":1027713343000},"page":"1221-1237","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["The platypus is not a rodent: DNA hybridization, amniote phylogeny and the palimpsest theory"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"353","author":[{"given":"John A. W.","family":"Kirsch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Wisconsin Zoological Museum, 250 North Mills Street, Madison,WI 53706, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory C.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Wisconsin Zoological Museum, 250 North Mills Street, Madison,WI 53706, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin\u2013Parkside, Kenosha, WI 53141, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"p_1","first-page":"92","article-title":"Marsupials and the evolution of mammals","volume":"4","author":"Abbie A. A.","year":"1941","journal-title":"Aust. J. Sci."},{"key":"p_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Archer M. Flannery T. F. Richie A. & Molnar R. E. 1985 First Mesozoic mammal from Australia\u00f6an early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318 363^366.","DOI":"10.1038\/318363a0"},{"key":"p_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Archer M. Murray P. Hand S. & Godthelp H. 1993 Reconsideration of monotreme relationships based on the skull and dentition of the Miocene Obdurodon dicksoni. In Mammal phylogeny. Mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 75^94. New York: Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_7"},{"key":"p_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnason U. Gullberg A. & Janke A. 1997 Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA suggests a sister group relationship between Xenarthra (Edentata) and ferungulates. Molec. Biol. Evol. 14 762^768.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025816"},{"key":"p_5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.1985.tb01796.x"},{"key":"p_6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02101113"},{"key":"p_7","unstructured":"Benton M. J. 1991 Amniote phylogeny. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb) pp. 317^330. Cornell University Press."},{"key":"p_8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1962.10480660"},{"key":"p_9","unstructured":"Bishop M. J. & Friday A. E. 1987 Tetrapod relationships: the molecular evidence. In Molecules and morphology in evolution: con\u00a3ict or compromise? (ed. C. Patterson) pp. 123^139. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"p_10","unstructured":"Bishop M. J. & Friday A. E. 1988 Estimating the interrelationships of tetrapod groups on the basis of molecular sequence data. In The phylogeny and classi\u00a2cation of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians reptiles birds (ed. M. J. Benton) pp. 33^58. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"p_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blackburn D. G. Vitt L. J. & Beuchat C. A. 1984 Eutherianlike reproductive specializations in a viviparous reptile. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 81 4860^4863.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.81.15.4860"},{"key":"p_12","article-title":"Experimental analysis of variance for DNA hybridization","volume":"37","author":"Bleiweiss R. E.","year":"1993","journal-title":"II. Precision. J. Molec. Evol."},{"key":"p_13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4088500"},{"key":"p_14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4088769"},{"key":"p_15","unstructured":"Broom R. 1914 On the structure and a\u00a4nities of the Multituberculata. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 33 115^134."},{"key":"p_16","first-page":"65","article-title":"On the classi\u00a2cation of the reptiles","volume":"51","author":"Broom R.","year":"1924","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"p_17","unstructured":"Camp C. L. 1923 Classi\u00a2cation of the lizards. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 48 289^481."},{"key":"p_18","unstructured":"Carroll R. L. 1988 Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. New York: W. H. Freeman."},{"key":"p_19","article-title":"Phylogenetic analysis: models and estimation procedures","volume":"19","author":"Cavalli-Sforza L. L.","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"p_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiappe L. M. 1995 The \u00a2rst 85 million years of avian evolution. Nature 378 349^355.","DOI":"10.1038\/378349a0"},{"key":"p_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cifelli R. L. Rowe T. B. Luckett W. P. Banta J. Reuben R. & Howes R. I. 1996 Fossil evidence for the origin of the marsupial pattern of tooth replacement. Nature 379 715^718.","DOI":"10.1038\/379715a0"},{"key":"p_22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1052150203"},{"key":"p_23","unstructured":"Colbert E. H. & Mook C. C. 1951 The ancestral crocodilian Protosuchus. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 97 143^182."},{"key":"p_24","unstructured":"Cope E. D. 1878 The theromorphous Reptilia. Am. Nat. 12 829^830."},{"key":"p_25","first-page":"259","article-title":"The Multituberculata monotremes","volume":"22","author":"Cope E. D.","year":"1888","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"p_26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ea.01.050173.001023"},{"key":"p_27","unstructured":"Crompton A. W. & Jenkins F. A. 1979 Origin of mammals. In Mesozoic mammals: the \u00a2rst two-thirds of mammalian history (ed. J. A. Lillegraven Z. Kielan-Jaworowska & W. A. Clemens) pp. 59^73. Berkeley: University of California Press."},{"key":"p_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D'Erchia A. M. Gissi G. Pesole G. Saccone C. & Arnason U. 1996 The guinea-pig is not a rodent. Nature 381 597^599.","DOI":"10.1038\/381597a0"},{"key":"p_29","unstructured":"Eernisse D. J. & Kluge A. G. 1993 Taxonomic congruence versus total evidence and amniote phylogeny inferred from fossils molecules and morphology. Molec. Biol. Evol. 10 1170^1195."},{"key":"p_30","unstructured":"Estes R. 1983 The fossil record and early distribution of lizards. In Advances in herpetology and evolutionary biology (ed. A. G. J. Rhodin & K. Miyata) pp. 365^398. Cambridge: Museum of Comparative Zoology."},{"key":"p_31","unstructured":"Estes R. 1988 Charles L. Camp: an appreciation. In Phylogenetic relationships of the lizard families (ed. R. Estes & G. Pregill) pp. 9^14. Stanford University Press."},{"key":"p_32","unstructured":"Feduccia A. 1996 The origin and evolution of birds. Yale University Press."},{"key":"p_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Felsenstein J. 1978 Cases in which parsimony or compatibility methods will be positively misleading. Syst. Zool. 27 401^410.","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/27.4.401"},{"key":"p_34","unstructured":"Felsenstein J. 1993 PHYLIP phylogenetic inference package. Version 3.5c. Seattle: University of Washington."},{"key":"p_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flannery T. F. Archer M. Rich T. H. & Jones R. 1995 A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia. Nature 377 418^420.","DOI":"10.1038\/377418a0"},{"key":"p_36","unstructured":"Ga\u00a1ney E. S. 1980 Phylogenetic relationships of the major groups of amniotes. In The terrestrial environment and the origin of land vertebrates (ed. A. L. Panchen) pp. 593^610. London: Academic Press."},{"key":"p_37","unstructured":"Ga\u00a1ney E. S. & Meylan P. 1988 A phylogeny of turtles. In The phylogeny and classi\u00a2cation of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians reptiles birds (ed. M. J. Benton) pp.157^217. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"p_38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.1982.tb01148.x"},{"key":"p_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardiner B. G. 1993 Haematothermia: warm-blooded amniotes. Cladistics 9 369^395.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-0031.1993.tb00232.x"},{"key":"p_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gauthier J. Kluge A. G. & Rowe T. 1988a Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics 4 105^209.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-0031.1988.tb00514.x"},{"key":"p_41","unstructured":"Gauthier J. Kluge A. G. & Rowe T. 1988b The early evolution of the Amniota. InThe phylogeny and classi\u00a2cation of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians reptiles birds (ed. M. J. Benton) pp. 103^155. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"p_42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01464347"},{"key":"p_43","unstructured":"Goodman M. Miyamoto M. M. & Czelusniak J. 1987 Pattern and process in vertebrate phylogeny revealed by coevolution of molecules and morphologies. In Molecules and morphology in evolution: con\u00a3ict or compromise? (ed. C. Patterson) pp. 141^176. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"p_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodrich E. S. 1916 On the classi\u00a2cation of the Reptilia. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 89 261^276.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1916.0012"},{"key":"p_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graur D. Hide W. A. & Li W.-H. 1991 Is the guinea-pig a rodent ? Nature 351 649^652.","DOI":"10.1038\/351649a0"},{"key":"p_46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1937.0015"},{"key":"p_47","first-page":"524","article-title":"The orders of mammals","volume":"27","author":"Gregory W. K.","year":"1910","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"p_48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1373300"},{"key":"p_49","first-page":"317","article-title":"A half century of trituberculy. The Cope ^ Osborn theory of dental evolution, with a revised summary of molar evolution from \u00a2sh to man","volume":"73","author":"Gregory W. K.","year":"1934","journal-title":"Proc. Am. Phil. Soc."},{"key":"p_50","first-page":"52","article-title":"The monotremes and the palimpsest theory","volume":"88","author":"Gregory W. K.","year":"1947","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"p_51","unstructured":"Gregory W. K. 1951 Evolution emerging: a survey of changing patterns from primeval life to man. New York: Macmillan."},{"key":"p_52","unstructured":"Gri\u00a4ths M. 1978 The biology of monotremes. New York: Academic Press."},{"key":"p_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedges B. 1994 Molecular evidence for the origin of birds. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 91 2621^2624.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.91.7.2621"},{"key":"p_54","unstructured":"Hedges B. Moberg K. D. & Maxson L. R. 1990 Tetrapod phylogeny inferred from 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA sequences and a review of the evidence for amniote relationships. Molec. Biol. Evol. 7 607^633."},{"key":"p_55","unstructured":"Heilmann G. 1926 The origin of birds. London: Witherby."},{"key":"p_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hillis D. M. Mable B. K. & Moritz C. 1996 Applications of molecular systematics: the state of the \u00a2eld and a look to the future. In Molecular systematics 2nd edn (ed. D. M. Hillis C. Moritz & B. K. Mable) pp. 515^543. Sunderland MA: Sinauer Associates.","DOI":"10.2307\/1447682"},{"key":"p_57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1051470207"},{"key":"p_58","unstructured":"Hopson J. A. 1991 Systematics of the nonmammalian Synapsida and implications for patterns of evolution in synapsids. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb) pp. 635^693. Cornell University Press."},{"key":"p_59","unstructured":"Hopson J. A. & Barghusen H. R. 1986 An analysis of therapsid relationships. InThe ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles (ed. N. Hotton P. D. MacLean J. J. Roth & E. C. Roth) pp. 83^ 106. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press."},{"key":"p_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu Y. Wang Y. Luo Z. & Li C. 1997 A new symmetrodont mammal from China and its implications for mammalian evolution. Nature 390 137^142.","DOI":"10.1038\/36505"},{"key":"p_61","unstructured":"Hume I. D. 1982 Digestive physiology and nutrition of marsupials. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"p_62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1998.0229"},{"key":"p_63","first-page":"75","article-title":"On the animals which are most nearly intermediate between birds and reptiles","volume":"2","author":"Huxley T. H.","year":"1868","journal-title":"Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4th series)"},{"key":"p_64","first-page":"31","article-title":"Further evidence of the a\u00a4nity between the dinosaurian reptiles and birds","volume":"26","author":"Huxley T. H.","year":"1870","journal-title":"Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond."},{"key":"p_65","unstructured":"Huxley T. H. 1880 On the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the Vertebrata and more particularly of the Mammalia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1880 649^662."},{"key":"p_66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1992.0019"},{"key":"p_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janke A. & Arnason U. 1997 The complete mitochondrial genome of Alligator mississippiensis and the separation between Recent Archosauria (birds and crocodiles). Molec. Biol. Evol. 14 1266^1272.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025736"},{"key":"p_68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02198841"},{"key":"p_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janke A. Xu X. & Arnason U. 1997 The complete mitochondrial genome of the wallaroo (Macropus robustus) and the phylogenetic relationship among Monotremata Marsupialia and Eutheria. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 94 1276^1281.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.4.1276"},{"key":"p_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins F. A. Gatesy S. M. Shubin N. H. & Amaral W. W. 1997 Haramiyids and Triassic mammalian evolution. Nature 385 715^718.","DOI":"10.1038\/385715a0"},{"key":"p_71","unstructured":"Johnson S. 1759 [The history of Rasselas:] The prince of Abissinia: a tale. London: R. & J. Dodsley and W. Johnston."},{"key":"p_72","unstructured":"Kemp T. S. 1982 Mammal-like reptiles and the origin of mammals. London: Academic Press."},{"key":"p_73","unstructured":"Kemp T. S. 1988a Interrelationships of the Synapsida. In The phylogeny and classi\u00a2cation of the tetrapods. 2. Mammals (ed. M. J. Benton) pp. 1^22. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"p_74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.1988.tb01527.x"},{"key":"p_75","first-page":"41","article-title":"Results of the Polish^ Mongolian palaeontological expeditions. III. Skull structure and a\u00a4nities of the Multituberculata","volume":"25","author":"Kielan-Jaworowska Z.","year":"1971","journal-title":"Palaeont. Pol."},{"key":"p_76","unstructured":"Kirsch J. A. W. & Archer M. 1982 Polythetic cladistics or when parsimony's not enough: the relationships of carnivorous marsupials. In Carnivorous marsupials (ed. M. Archer) pp. 595^ 619. Mosman NSW: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales."},{"key":"p_77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1998.0216"},{"key":"p_78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02101115"},{"key":"p_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirsch J. A. W. Dickerman A. W. Reig O. A. & Springer M. S. 1991 DNA hybridization evidence for the Australasian a\u00a4nity of the American marsupial Dromiciops australis. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 88 10 465^10 469.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.23.10465"},{"key":"p_80","first-page":"78","article-title":"DNA\/ DNA hybridization studies of carnivorous marsupials. IV. Intergeneric relations among opossums (Marsupialia: Didelphidae)","volume":"1","author":"Kirsch J. A. W.","year":"1995","journal-title":"Marmosiana"},{"key":"p_81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1071\/ZO96030"},{"key":"p_82","first-page":"91","article-title":"Early development of the shoulder girdle and sternum in marsupials (Mammalia: Metatheria)","volume":"109","author":"Klima M.","year":"1987","journal-title":"Adv. Embryol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"p_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krajewski C. & Dickerman A. W. 1990 Bootstrap analysis of phylogenetic trees derived from DNA hybridization distances. Syst. Zool. 39 383^390.","DOI":"10.2307\/2992358"},{"key":"p_84","first-page":"64","article-title":"The systematic position of monotremes reconsidered (Mammalia)","volume":"75","author":"Ku","year":"1973","journal-title":"Z. Morph.Tiere"},{"key":"p_85","article-title":"On the Marsupionta, a reply to Dr","volume":"11","author":"Ku","year":"1977","journal-title":"Parrington. J. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"p_86","unstructured":"Kuhn-Schnyder E. 1980 Observations on temporal openings of reptilian skulls and the classi\u00a2cation of reptiles. In Aspects of vertebrate history (ed. L. L. Jacobs) pp. 153^175. Flagsta\u00a1: Museum of Northern Arizona Press."},{"key":"p_87","unstructured":"Kumazawa Y. & Nishida M. 1995 Variations in mitochondrial tRNA gene organization of reptiles as phylogenetic markers. Molec. Biol. Evol. 12 759^772."},{"key":"p_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landry P.-A. Lapointe F.-J. & Kirsch J. A. W. 1996 Estimating phylogenies from lacunose distance matrices: additive is superior to ultrametric estimation. Molec. Biol. Evol. 13 818^ 823.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025642"},{"key":"p_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lapointe F.-J. Kirsch J. A. W. & Bleiweiss R. 1994 Jackkni\u00a2ng of weighted trees: validation of phylogenies reconstructed from distance matrices. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol. 3 256^267.","DOI":"10.1006\/mpev.1994.1028"},{"key":"p_90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1096-3642.1995.tb00932.x"},{"key":"p_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurin M. & Reisz R. R. 1997 A new perspective on tetrapod phylogeny. In Amniote origins (ed. S. S. Sumida & K. L. M. Martin) pp. 9^59. San Diego: Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012676460-4\/50003-2"},{"key":"p_92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.1995.tb01197.x"},{"key":"p_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee M. S. Y. 1996 Correlated progression and the origin of turtles. Nature 379 812^815.","DOI":"10.1038\/379812a0"},{"key":"p_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee M. S. Y. & Spencer P. S. 1997 Crown clades key characters and taxonomic stability: when is an amniote not an amniote? In Amniote origins (ed. S. S. Sumida & K. L. M. Martin) pp. 61^84. San Diego: Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012676460-4\/50004-4"},{"key":"p_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lillegraven J. A. 1975 Biological considerations of the marsupial^ placental dichotomy. Evolution 29 707^722.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1975.tb00865.x"},{"key":"p_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loomis W. F. & Smith D. W. 1992 Molecular phylogeny of Dictyostelium discoideum by protein sequence comparison. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 87 9093^9097.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.87.23.9093"},{"key":"p_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00d6vtrup S. 1985 On the classi\u00a2cation of the taxon Tetrapoda. Syst. Zool. 34 463^470.","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/34.4.463"},{"key":"p_98","unstructured":"Luckett P. & Zeller U. 1989 Developmental evidence for dental homologies in the monotreme Ornithorhynchus and its systematic applications. Z. Sa ugert. 54 193^204."},{"key":"p_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lull R. S. 1917 Organic evolution. New York: Macmillan.","DOI":"10.2307\/3221517"},{"key":"p_100","unstructured":"Luo Z. 1994 Sister-group relationships of mammals and transformations of diagnostic mammalian characters. In In the shadow of the dinosaurs (ed. N. C. Fraser & H.-D. Sues) pp. 98^ 128. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"p_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacIntyre G. T. 1967 Foramen pseudovale and quasi-mammals. Evolution 21 834^841.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1967.tb03437.x"},{"key":"p_102","unstructured":"Maier W. 1987 The ontogenetic development of the orbitotemporal region in the skull of Monodelphis domestica (Didelphidae Marsupialia) and the problem of the mammalian alisphenoid. In Morphogenesis of the mammalian skull (ed. H.-J. Kuhn & U. Zeller) pp. 71^90. Hamburg: Paul Parey."},{"key":"p_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maier W. 1993 Cranial morphology of the therian common ancestor as suggested by the adaptations of neonate marsupials. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 165^181. New York: Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_12"},{"key":"p_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mannen H. Tsoi S. C.-M. Krushkal J. S. Li W.-H. & Li S. S.-L. 1997 The cDNA cloning and molecular evolution of reptile and pigeon lactate dehydrogenase isozymes. Molec. Biol. Evol. 14 1081^1087.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025717"},{"key":"p_105","unstructured":"Martin L. D.1991Mesozoic birds and the origin of birds. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L.Trueb) pp. 485^540. Cornell University Press."},{"key":"p_106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1027300726126"},{"key":"p_107","first-page":"233","article-title":"The embryology of the opossum","volume":"16","author":"McCrady E.","year":"1938","journal-title":"Am. Anat. Mem."},{"key":"p_108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1020523120739"},{"key":"p_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miao D. 1993 Cranial morphology and multituberculate relationship. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 63^74. New York: Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_6"},{"key":"p_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moody S. 1985 Charles L. Camp and his 1923 classi\u00a2cation of lizards: an early cladist ? Syst. Zool. 34 216^222.","DOI":"10.2307\/sysbio\/34.2.216"},{"key":"p_111","unstructured":"Novacek M. J. 1993 Patterns of diversity in the mammalian skull. In The skull. 2. Patterns of structural and systematic diversity (ed. J. Hanken & B. K. Hall) pp.438^545. University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"p_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Novas F. E. & Puerta P. F. 1997 New evidence concerning avian origins from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia. Nature 387 390^392.","DOI":"10.1038\/387390a0"},{"key":"p_113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8312.1976.tb00244.x"},{"key":"p_114","unstructured":"Ostrom J. H. 1991 The question of the origin of birds. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb) pp. 467^484. Cornell University Press."},{"key":"p_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owen R. 1866 On the anatomy of vertebrates. London: Longmans Green.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.33654"},{"key":"p_116","unstructured":"Owen R. 1876 Description and illustrated catalogue of the fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the collection of the British Museum. London: British Museum."},{"key":"p_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Page R. D. M. 1996 TREEVIEW: an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers. Comp. Applic. Biosci. 12 357^358.","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/12.4.357"},{"key":"p_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascual R. Archer M. Ortiz Jaureguizar E. Prado J. L. Godthelp H. & Hand S. J. 1992 First discovery of monotremes in South America. Nature 356 704^705.","DOI":"10.1038\/356704a0"},{"key":"p_119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01454252"},{"key":"p_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pettigrew J. D. 1994 Flying DNA. Curr. Biol. 4 277^280.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9822(00)00065-8"},{"key":"p_121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1998.0215"},{"key":"p_122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01464365"},{"key":"p_123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/mpev.1996.0008"},{"key":"p_124","unstructured":"Ra\u00a1 R. A. 1996 The shape of life: genes development and the evolution of animal form. University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"p_125","unstructured":"Rage J.-C. 1984 Serpentes. Handbuch der Pala oherpetologie Teil 11. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer."},{"key":"p_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reig O. A. 1981 A refreshed orthodox view of paleobiogeography of South American mammals. Evolution 35 1032^1035.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1981.tb04971.x"},{"key":"p_127","unstructured":"Reig O. A. Kirsch J. A. W. & Marshall L. G. 1987 Systematic relationships of the living and Neocenozoic American `possumlike' marsupials (Suborder Didelphimorphia) with comments on the classi\u00a2cation of these and of the Cretaceous and Palaeogene New World and European metatherians. In Possums and opossums: studies in evolution (ed. M. Archer) pp. 1^89. Chipping Norton NSW: Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd."},{"key":"p_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rieppel O. & deBraga M. 1996 Turtles as diapsid reptiles. Nature 384 453^455.","DOI":"10.1038\/384453a0"},{"key":"p_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romer A. S. 1956 Osteology of the reptiles. University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/1292217"},{"key":"p_130","unstructured":"Romer A. S. 1966 Vertebrate paleontology. University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"p_131","unstructured":"Romer A. S. 1968 Notes and comments on vertebrate paleontology. University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"p_132","first-page":"43","article-title":"Middle-ear ossicles of the multituberculate Kryptobaatar from the Mongolian Late Cretaceous: implications for mammaliamorph relationships and the evolution of the auditory apparatus","volume":"3187","author":"Rougier G. W.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. Mus. Novitates"},{"key":"p_133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724634.1988.10011708"},{"key":"p_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rowe T. 1993 Phylogenetic systematics and the early history of mammals. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 129^145. New York: Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_10"},{"key":"p_135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02407344"},{"key":"p_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarich V. M. & Cronin J. E. 1976 Molecular systematics of the primates. In Molecular anthropology genes and proteins in the evolutionary ascent of the primates (ed. M. Goodman & R. E. Tashian) pp. 141^170. New York: Plenum Press.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-8783-5_8"},{"key":"p_137","unstructured":"Selenka E. 1887 Studien u ber Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tiere. Band I.Viertes heft. Das opossum (Didelphys virginiana). Weisbaden: C. W. Kreidels."},{"key":"p_138","unstructured":"Seutin G. Lang B. F. Mindell D. P. & Morais R. 1994 Evolution of the WANCY region in amniote mitochondrial DNA. Molec. Biol. Evol. 11 329^340."},{"key":"p_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharman G. B. 1970 Reproductive physiology of marsupials. Science 167 1221^1228.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.167.3922.1221"},{"key":"p_140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02103620"},{"key":"p_141","unstructured":"Simmons N. B. 1993 Phylogeny of Multituberculata. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 146^164. New York: Springer."},{"key":"p_142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.1052220204"},{"key":"p_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith K. K. 1997 Comparative patterns of craniofacial development in eutherian and metatherian mammals. Evolution 51 1663^1678.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1997.tb01489.x"},{"key":"p_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sober E. 1988 Likelihood and convergence. Phil. Sci. 55 228^237.","DOI":"10.1086\/289429"},{"key":"p_145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01464363"},{"key":"p_146","unstructured":"Springer M. S. Kirsch J. A. W. & Case J. A. 1997 The chronicle of marsupial evolution. In Molecular evolution and adaptive radiation (ed. T. J. Givnish & K. J. Sytsma) pp. 129^ 161. Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"p_147","unstructured":"Starck D. 1995 Sa ugetiere (Teil 5; Band II: Wirbeltiere). Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie. Jena: Gustav Fischer."},{"key":"p_148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1027314112438"},{"key":"p_149","unstructured":"Tyndale-Biscoe C. H. 1973 Life of marsupials. NewYork: American Elsevier."},{"key":"p_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tyndale-Biscoe C. H. & Renfree M. 1987 Reproductive physiology of marsupials. Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511623493"},{"key":"p_151","unstructured":"Vaughn T. A. 1986 Mammalogy 3rd edn. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers."},{"key":"p_152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1916.0007"},{"key":"p_153","unstructured":"Werman S. D. Springer M. S. & Britten R. J. 1996 Nucleic acids. I. DNA^ DNA hybridization. In Molecular systematics 2nd edn (ed. D. M. Hillis C. Moritz & B. K. Mable) pp. 169^203. Sunderland MA: Sinauer Associates."},{"key":"p_154","unstructured":"Westerman M. & Edwards D. 1992 DNA hybridisation and the phylogeny of monotremes. In Platypus and echidnas (ed. M. L. Augee) pp. 28^34. Sydney: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales."},{"key":"p_155","first-page":"28","article-title":"Petrosals of late Cretaceous marsupials from North America, and a cladistic analysis of the petrosal in therian mammals","volume":"11","author":"Wible J. R.","year":"1990","journal-title":"J.Vert. Paleont."},{"key":"p_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wible J. R. & Hopson J. A. 1993 Basicranial evidence for early mammal phylogeny. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 45^62. New York: Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_5"},{"key":"p_157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/622507"},{"key":"p_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williston S. 1925 The osteology of the reptiles. Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.6573"},{"key":"p_159","unstructured":"Witmer L. M. 1991 Perspectives on avian origins. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb) pp. 427^466. Cornell University Press."},{"key":"p_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeller U. 1993 Ontogenetic evidence for cranial homologies in monotremes and therians with special","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9249-1_8"},{"key":"p_161","unstructured":"Ornithorhynchus. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic di\u00a1erentiation"},{"key":"p_162","unstructured":"multituberculates monotremes early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S."},{"key":"p_163","unstructured":"Szalay M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna) pp. 95^107. New"},{"key":"p_164","unstructured":"York: Springer."},{"key":"p_165","first-page":"345","article-title":"Origin of mammalian reproduction","volume":"232","author":"Zeller U.","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Morph."},{"key":"p_166","unstructured":"Zug G. R. 1993 Herpetology. San Diego: Academic Press."}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.1998.0278","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.1998.0278","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T21:26:16Z","timestamp":1778621176000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/353\/1372\/1221-1237\/19280"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"P. R.","family":"Manger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]},{"given":"J. D.","family":"Pettigrew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]]},"references-count":166,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1372","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rstb.1998.0278"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.1998.0278","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1998,7,29]]}}}