{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:58:53Z","timestamp":1791316733660,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1384","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]],"date-time":"1999-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":925344000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Recent research has shown that many parasite populations are made up of a number of epidemiologically distinct strains or genotypes. The implications of strain structure or genetic diversity for parasite population dynamics are still uncertain, partly because there is no coherent framework for the interpretation of field data. Here, we present an analysis of four published data sets for vector\u2013borne microparasite infections where strains or genotypes have been distinguished: serotypes of African horse sickness (AHS) in zebra; types of\n                    <jats:italic>Nannomonas<\/jats:italic>\n                    trypanosomes in tsetse flies; parasite\u2013induced erythrocyte surface antigen (PIESA) based isolates of\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    malaria in humans, and the merozoite surface protein 2 gene (MSP\u20132) alleles of\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    in humans and in anopheline mosquitoes. For each data set we consider the distribution of strains or types among hosts and any pairwise associations between strains or types. Where host age data are available we also compare age\u2013prevalence relationships and estimates of the force\u2013of\u2013infection. Multiple infections of hosts are common and for most data sets infections have an aggregated distribution among hosts with a tendency towards positive associations between certain strains or types. These patterns could result from interactions (facilitation) between strains or types, or they could reflect patterns of contact between hosts and vectors. We use a mathematical model to illustrate the impact of host\u2013vector contact patterns, finding that even if contact is random there may still be significant aggregation in parasite distributions. This effect is enhanced if there is non\u2013random contact or other heterogeneities between hosts, vectors or parasites. In practice, different strains or types also have different forces of infection. We anticipate that aggregated distributions and positive associations between microparasite strains or types will be extremely common.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1999.0432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,26]],"date-time":"2002-07-26T19:55:21Z","timestamp":1027713321000},"page":"799-807","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Aggregation and distribution of strains in microparasites"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"354","author":[{"given":"C. C.","family":"Lord","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Centre for the Epidemiology of Infectious Disease, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford UKOX1 3PS, UK"},{"name":"Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida, 200 9th Street SE,Vero Beach, FL 32962, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B.","family":"Barnard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, Republic of South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K.","family":"Day","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Centre for the Epidemiology of Infectious Disease, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford UKOX1 3PS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. W.","family":"Hargrove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ODA Insect Pest Management Initiative, Box CY52, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. J.","family":"McNamara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRCTrypanosomiasis Research Group,Department of ClinicalVeterinary Science,University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS18 7DU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R. E. L.","family":"Paul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Centre for the Epidemiology of Infectious Disease, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford UKOX1 3PS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K.","family":"Trenholme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Walter &amp; ElizaHall Institute ofMedical Research, Parkville,Victoria 3050, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. E. J.","family":"Woolhouse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Centre for the Epidemiology of Infectious Disease, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford UKOX1 3PS, UK"},{"name":"Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine,University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin,Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"p_1","article-title":"A longitudinal study of seroreactivities to Plasmodium falciparum antigens in Nigerian infants during their \u00a2rst year of life","volume":"59","author":"Achidi E. A.","year":"1995","journal-title":"ActaTrop."},{"key":"p_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson R. M. & May R. M. 1985 Herd immunity to helminth infection and implications for parasite control. Nature 315 493^496.","DOI":"10.1038\/315493a0"},{"key":"p_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson R. M. & May R. 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J.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Africa. Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"p_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woolhouse M. E. J. (and 12 others) 1997 Heterogeneities in the transmission of infectious agents: implications for the design of control programs. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94 338^342.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.1.338"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.1999.0432","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.1999.0432","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T21:20:56Z","timestamp":1778620856000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/354\/1384\/799-807\/19418"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"R. M.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1384","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rstb.1999.0432"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.1999.0432","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,4,29]]}}}