{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T22:24:54Z","timestamp":1778624694883,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1410","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2001,6,29]],"date-time":"2001-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":993772800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,6,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) of the common chimpanzee is widely acknowledged as the direct ancestor of HIV\u20131. There is increasing historical evidence that during the late 1950s, kidneys were routinely excised from central African chimpanzees by scientists who were collaborating with the polio vaccine research of Dr Hilary Koprowski, and sent \u2013 inter alia \u2013 to vaccine\u2013making laboratories in the USA and Africa, and to unspecified destinations in Belgium. While there is no direct evidence that cells from these kidneys were used as a substrate for growing Dr Koprowski's oral polio vaccines, there is a startling coincidence between places in Africa where his CHAT vaccine was fed, and the first appearances in the world of HIV\u20131 group M and group\u2013M\u2013related AIDS. Because of the enormous implications of the hypothesis that AIDS may be an unintended iatrogenic (physician\u2013caused) disease, it is almost inevitable that this theory will engender heated opposition from many of those in the scientific establishment, and those with vested interests.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2001.0860","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,9,6]],"date-time":"2002-09-06T17:24:08Z","timestamp":1031333048000},"page":"803-814","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Experimental oral polio vaccines and acquired immune deficiency syndrome"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"356","author":[{"given":"Edward","family":"Hooper","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"c\/o Penguin Books, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 5TZ, UK ()"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2001,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"p_1","unstructured":"Anonymous 956 Traveller's guide to the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi 2nd edn pp. 5 ^ 58. Brussels: Tourist Bureau for the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi."},{"key":"p_2","unstructured":"Anonymous 958 Application au Congo du nouveau vaccin (antipolyo) du Dr Koprowski. L'Avenir (Le opoldville) August 9^ 0 958 p. 2."},{"key":"p_3","unstructured":"Barski G. Jezierski A. & Le pine P. 954 Sensibilite au virus de la poliomye lite in vitro des tissus de di\u00a1e rentes espe ces de singes d'Afrique centrale. Non re ceptivite des tissus de certains mammife res. Annls Inst. Past. 86 243^247."},{"key":"p_4","unstructured":"Bodian D. 956 Poliovirus in chimpanzee tissues after virus feeding. Am. J. H g. 58 8 ^ 00."},{"issue":"54","key":"p_5","first-page":"42","article-title":"tude sur la se ropositivite lie e a l'infection au virus de l'immunode\u00a2cience humaine au Rwanda","volume":"20","author":"Bugingo G.","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Rwand."},{"key":"p_6","unstructured":"Courtois G. 967 Sur la re alisation d'une singerie de chimpanze s au Congo. S mposium international sur l'avenir des animaux de laboratoires L on 18^20 September 1966 pp. 235^244. Lyon: Ed. Me rieux."},{"key":"p_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Courtois G. Flack A. Jervis G. A. Koprowski H. & Ninane G. 958 Preliminary report on mass vaccination of man with live poliomyelitis virus in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. Brit. Med. J. 2(i) 87^ 90.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.5090.187"},{"key":"p_8","unstructured":"Curtis T. 992 The origin of AIDS: a startling new theory attempts to answer the question: `Was it an act of God or an act of man?'. Rolling Stone 626 54^60 06 and 08."},{"key":"p_9","unstructured":"Deinhardt F. 959 Hepatitis data book. (Unpublished made available by J. Deinhardt)."},{"key":"p_10","unstructured":"Expert Committee on Poliomyelitis 960 Third Report. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. 203 ^53 (see p. 35)."},{"key":"p_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garrett A. J. 993 Retroviruses and poliovaccines. The Lancet 342 932^933.","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)91982-R"},{"key":"p_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hillis D. M. 2000 AIDS. Origins of HIV. Science 288 757^ 759.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5472.1757"},{"key":"p_13","unstructured":"Hooper E. 999 The river: a journe back to the source of HIV and AIDS. London\/Boston MA: Allen Lane^Penguin Press\/ Little Brown & Co."},{"key":"p_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huet T. Cheynier R. Meyerhans A. Roelants G. & Wain-Hobson S. 990 Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV- . Nature 345 356^358.","DOI":"10.1038\/345356a0"},{"key":"p_15","unstructured":"Jezierski A. 955 Action cytopathoge nique des trois prototypes de virus de la poliomye lite in vitro sur les tissus de di\u00a1e rentes espe ces de singes d'Afrique centrale. Annls Inst. Past. 89 78^82."},{"key":"p_16","first-page":"20","article-title":"on Live Poliovirus Vaccines","author":"Koprowski H.","year":"1959","journal-title":"Washington, DC, 22^"},{"key":"p_17","unstructured":"Le pine P. & Paccaud M. 957 Contribution a l'e tude du virus spumeux (foamy virus). Annls Inst. Past. 92 289^300."},{"key":"p_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peeters M. Honore C. Huet T. Bedjabaga L. Ossari S. Bussi P. Cooper R. W. & Delaporte E. 989 Isolation and partial characterization of an HIV-related virus occurring naturally in chimpanzees in Gabon. AIDS 3 625^630.","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-198910000-00001"},{"key":"p_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plotkin S. A. Cohen B. J. & Koprowski H. 96 Intratypic serodi\u00a1erentiation of polioviruses. Virolog 15 473^485.","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(61)90114-3"},{"key":"p_20","first-page":"507","article-title":"Report on \u00a2eld trials with live attenuated poliomyelitis vaccine in Poland. First Int. Conf. on Live Poliovirus Vaccines","author":"Przesmycki F.","year":"1959","journal-title":"Washington, DC, 22^"},{"key":"p_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schierup M. K. & Hein J. 2000a Recombination and the molecular clock. Mol. Biol. Evol. 17 578^ 579.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026256"},{"key":"p_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schierup M. K. & Hein J. 2000b Consequences of recombination on traditional phylogenetic analysis. Genetics 156 879^89 .","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/156.2.879"},{"key":"p_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van de Perre P. Clumeck N. Carael M. Nzabihimana E. Robert-Guro\u00a1 M. De Mol P. Freyens P. Butzler J.-P. Gallo R. C. & Kanyamupira J.-P. 985 Female prostitutes: a risk group for infection with human T-cell Iymphotropic virus type III. The Lancet 2(i) 524^527.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)90462-3"},{"key":"p_24","unstructured":"Vaughan R. 2000 Listen to the music\u00f6the life of Hilar Koprowski p. 240. New York: Springer."},{"key":"p_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vidal N. Peeters M. Mulanga-Kabeya C. Nzilambi N. Robertson D. Ilunga W. Sema H. Tshimanga K. Bongo B. & Delaporte E. 2000 Unprecedented degree of human immunode\u00a2ciency virus type (HIV- ) genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIVpandemic originated in central Africa. J.Virol. 74 0 498^ 0 507.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.22.10498-10507.2000"},{"key":"p_26","unstructured":"Von Magnus P. Birkum Petersen K. Bech V. Petersen I. & Von Magnus H. 955 Tissue cultures of trypsinized kidney cells from di\u00a1erent monkey species. Observations on their suitability for polio virus work. Dan. Med. Bull. 2 236^240."},{"key":"p_27","unstructured":"Weiss R. A. 200 Polio vaccines exonerated. Nature 410 035^ 036."},{"key":"p_28","unstructured":"Wolfheim J. H. 983 Primates of the world\u00f6distribution abundance and conservation. Seattle: University of Washington Press."},{"key":"p_29","unstructured":"Worobey M. 200 A novel approach to detecting and measuring recombination: new insights into evolution in viruses bacteria and mitochondria. Mol. Evol. Biol. (In the press.)"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 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