{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T02:02:25Z","timestamp":1792807345903,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1526","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]],"date-time":"2009-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1248652800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Packaging waste forms a significant part of municipal solid waste and has caused increasing environmental concerns, resulting in a strengthening of various regulations aimed at reducing the amounts generated. Among other materials, a wide range of oil-based polymers is currently used in packaging applications. These are virtually all non-biodegradable, and some are difficult to recycle or reuse due to being complex composites having varying levels of contamination. Recently, significant progress has been made in the development of biodegradable plastics, largely from renewable natural resources, to produce biodegradable materials with similar functionality to that of oil-based polymers. The expansion in these bio-based materials has several potential benefits for greenhouse gas balances and other environmental impacts over whole life cycles and in the use of renewable, rather than finite resources. It is intended that use of biodegradable materials will contribute to sustainability and reduction in the environmental impact associated with disposal of oil-based polymers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>The diversity of biodegradable materials and their varying properties makes it difficult to make simple, generic assessments such as biodegradable products are all \u2018good\u2019 or petrochemical-based products are all \u2018bad\u2019. This paper discusses the potential impacts of biodegradable packaging materials and their waste management, particularly via composting. It presents the key issues that inform judgements of the benefits these materials have in relation to conventional, petrochemical-based counterparts. Specific examples are given from new research on biodegradability in simulated \u2018home\u2019 composting systems. It is the view of the authors that biodegradable packaging materials are most suitable for single-use disposable applications where the post-consumer waste can be locally composted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,6,15]],"date-time":"2009-06-15T00:38:08Z","timestamp":1245026288000},"page":"2127-2139","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":851,"title":["Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"364","author":[{"given":"J. H.","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R. J.","family":"Murphy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Narayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G. B. H.","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/bp980015p"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0304"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_1","unstructured":"Anon. 2002 Waste not want not: a strategy for tackling the waste problem in England. UK Cabinet Office Strategy Unit. See. http:\/\/www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk\/~\/media\/assets\/www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk\/strategy\/wastenot%20pdf.ashx."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_1","unstructured":"APME. 2002 Using waste plastic as a substitute for coal. Warmer Bulletin. no. 83 March 2002 pp. 20\u201321."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_1","unstructured":"ASTM. 2002 Standard specification for compostable plastics (Designation: D 6400-99) ASTM International 100 Barr Harbour Drive PO Box C700 West Conshohocken PA 19428-12959 USA."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0205"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_1","unstructured":"Bioplastics 07\/08 Processing parameters and technical characteristics\u2014a global overview. Bioplastics24.com. ISSN 1863-7299."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_1","volume-title":"British Plastics Federation and the Industrial Films Association.","author":"BPF","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_1","unstructured":"BS EN 13432. 2000 Packaging. Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation. Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the final acceptance of packaging. London UK: British Standards Institution."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_1","unstructured":"BSI. 2002 Publicly available specification 100 (PAS 100)\u2014specification for composted materials (BSI PAS 100). ICS codes: 65.020.20: 65.080."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_1","unstructured":"Claesen C.. 2005 Hycail\u2014more than the other PLA producer presentation at RSC Symposium sustainable plastics: biodegradability vs recycling ."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2005.05.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1065657X.2005.10702217"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_1","first-page":"PB10188","volume-title":"A strategy for non-food crops and uses","author":"DEFRA","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_1","unstructured":"DEFRA. 2007 Waste strategy for England 2007 . PB12596. London UK: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. See http:\/\/www.defra.gov.uk\/environment\/waste\/strategy\/strategy07\/pdf\/waste07-strategy.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_1","unstructured":"EEA (European Environment Agency). 2007 The road from landfilling to recycling: common destination different routes. 978-92-9167-930-0. Copenhagen Denmark."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_1","unstructured":"EN 13432. 2000 See BS EN 13432."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0265"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_1","first-page":"431","volume-title":"GPEC 2002: plastics impact on the environment, Conf. Proc.","author":"Hartmann L.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0311"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_1","unstructured":"House of Commons. 1993 Session 1993\u201394. Environment Committee 2nd Report Recycling 1 470."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_1","unstructured":"House of Lords. 1994 The government response to the 2nd report from the House of Commons Select Committee on the Environment White Paper Recycling November 1994. p. 5."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_1","volume-title":"Paper presented at the 1st Int. Conf. Solid Waste","author":"Hudgins M.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_1","article-title":"Introducing compostable packaging in Kassel, Germany","author":"Klauss M.","year":"2001","journal-title":"Orbit Magazine"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_1","first-page":"382","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 1st UK Conference and Exhibition on Biodegradable and Residual Waste Management","author":"Klauss M.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_1","volume-title":"Working document of biodegradable waste management","author":"Klingbeil M.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_1","article-title":"European Commission","author":"Landfill Directive 1999\/31\/EC","journal-title":"Official Journal of the European Communities l182\/1\u201319"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es0010498"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_1","unstructured":"Miller R.. 2005 The landscape for biopolymers in packaging. Miller-Klein Associates report. Summary and Full Report available from The National Non-Food Crops Centre Heslington York UK. www.nnfcc.co.uk."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2007.07.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_1","unstructured":"Murphy R.& Bartle I.. 2004 Summary report biodegradable polymers and sustainability: insight from life cycle assessment. National Non Food Crops Centre UK."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_1","volume-title":"PVC 2002: towards a sustainable future Conf. Proc.","author":"Musdalslien M.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_1","first-page":"339","volume-title":"Science and engineering of composting: design, environmental, microbiological and utilization aspects","author":"Narayan R.","year":"1993"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-81708-2.50026-9","volume-title":"Biodegradable plastics and polymers","author":"Narayan R.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/bk-2006-0939.ch018"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_1","volume-title":"Renewable resources and renewable energy","author":"Narayan R.","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0242"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_1","volume-title":"Biopolymers","author":"Patel M.","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2244(99)00019-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_1","unstructured":"Producer Responsibility (Packaging Waste) Regulations as amended in 1997 (SI 1997 no. 648). HMSO UK."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.59.4.1242-1246.1993","article-title":"Biodegradability and mechanical properties of poly-(\u03b2-hydroxybutyrate-co-\u03b2-hydroxyvalerate)-starch blends","volume":"59","author":"Ramsay B. A.","year":"1993","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0207"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-0571-2_9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/bm010099h"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0283"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_1","volume-title":"Biodegradable polymers for industrial applications","author":"Smith R.","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0284"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1094559"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0054"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0053"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:BILE.0000025927.31028.e3"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_1","article-title":"Plastics waste\u2014feedstock recycling, chemical recycling and incineration","volume":"13","author":"Tukker A.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rapra Rev. Rep."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_1","unstructured":"UK Packaging Regulations. 1998 The Packaging (Essential Requirements) Regulations 1998 Statutory Instrument 1998 No. 1165. ISBN 0 11 079016 2 London UK: HMSO The Stationery Office Ltd."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_1","unstructured":"WRAP. 2006 UK plastics waste\u2014a review of supplies for recycling global market demand future trends and associated risks. ISBN: 1-84405-254-0. See http:\/\/www.wrap.org.uk\/downloads\/International_Markets_Plastics.bfd1a3be.3952.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_1","unstructured":"WRAP. 2008 Domestic mixed plastics packaging waste management options project report. WRAP Banbury Oxon. ISBN: 1-84405-396-2. See http:\/\/www.wrap.org.uk\/downloads\/Mixed_Plastic_Final_Report_v15_090608__3_.aaf0dcf9.5479.pdf."}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T21:23:52Z","timestamp":1778621032000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/364\/1526\/2127-2139\/21020"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1526","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2008.0289","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2009,7,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2009-07-27","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}