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This sleep-related suppression of activity is most apparent in the tonic component of motor activity, which has functional implications of a more collapsible upper airspace in the case of pharyngeal muscles, and decreased functional residual capacity in the case of intercostal muscles. A major source of tonic drive to respiratory motoneurons originates from neurons intimately involved in states of brain arousal, i.e. neurons not classically involved in generating respiratory rhythm and pattern\n                    <jats:italic>per se<\/jats:italic>\n                    . The tonic drive to hypoglossal motoneurons, a respiratory motor pool with both respiratory and non-respiratory functions, is mediated principally by noradrenergic and glutamatergic inputs, these constituting the essential components of the\n                    <jats:italic>wakefulness stimulus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . These tonic excitatory drives are opposed by tonic inhibitory glycinergic and \u03b3-amino butyric acid (GABA) inputs that constrain the level of respiratory-related motor activity, with the balance determining net motor tone. In sleep, the excitatory inputs are withdrawn and GABA release into the brainstem is increased, thus decreasing respiratory motor tone and predisposing susceptible individuals to hypoventilation and obstructive sleep apnoea.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0065","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,3]],"date-time":"2009-08-03T06:03:28Z","timestamp":1249279408000},"page":"2553-2564","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Emerging principles and neural substrates underlying tonic sleep-state-dependent influences on respiratory motor activity"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"364","author":[{"given":"Richard L.","family":"Horner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Room 7308 Medical Sciences Building, 1 Kings College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Room 7308 Medical Sciences Building, 1 Kings College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_1","first-page":"317","article-title":"Oropharyngeal patency during walking and sleep in the Pickwickian syndrome: electromyographic activity of the tensor veli palatini","volume":"21","author":"Anch A. 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