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Trans. R. Soc. B"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,26]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are important elements of the innate immune defence in multicellular organisms that target and kill microbes. Here, we reflect on the various points that are raised by the authors of the 11 contributions to a special issue of\n                    <jats:italic>Philosophical Transactions<\/jats:italic>\n                    on the \u2018evolutionary ecology of arthropod antimicrobial peptides'. We see five interesting topics emerging. (i) AMP genes in insects, and perhaps in arthropods more generally, evolve much slower than most other immune genes. One explanation refers to the constraints set by AMPs being part of a finely tuned defence system. A new view argues that AMPs are under strong stabilizing selection. Regardless, this striking observation still invites many more questions than have been answered so far. (ii) AMPs almost always are expressed in combinations and sometimes show expression patterns that are dependent on the infectious agent. While it is often assumed that this can be explained by synergistic interactions, such interactions have rarely been demonstrated and need to be studied further. Moreover, how to define synergy in the first place remains difficult and needs to be addressed. (iii) AMPs play a very important role in mediating the interaction between a host and its mutualistic or commensal microbes. This has only been studied in a very small number of (insect) species. It has become clear that the very same AMPs play different roles in different situations and hence are under concurrent selection. (iv) Different environments shape the physiology of organisms; especially the host-associated microbial communities should impact on the evolution host AMPs. Studies in social insects and some organisms from extreme environments seem to support this notion, but, overall, the evidence for adaptation of AMPs to a given environment is scant. (v) AMPs are considered or already developed as new drugs in medicine. However, bacteria can evolve resistance to AMPs. Therefore, in the light of our limited understanding of AMP evolution in the natural context, and also the very limited understanding of the evolution of resistance against AMPs in bacteria in particular, caution is recommended. What is clear though is that study of the ecology and evolution of AMPs in natural systems could inform many of these outstanding questions, including those related to medical applications and pathogen control.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the themed issue \u2018Evolutionary ecology of arthropod antimicrobial peptides\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0297","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,9]],"date-time":"2016-05-09T20:54:04Z","timestamp":1462827244000},"page":"20150297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Perspectives on the evolutionary ecology of arthropod antimicrobial peptides"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"371","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1529-5409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jens","family":"Rolff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biology, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin, K\u00f6nigin-Luise-Strasse 1\u20133, 14195 Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), 14195 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4748-0553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Schmid-Hempel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Z\u00fcrich, Institute of Integrative Biology (IBZ), ETH-Zentrum CHN, Universit\u00e4tsstrasse 16, 8092 Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3733\/hilg.v26n02p107"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/43.2.278"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/292246a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0303"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2008.12.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.19.11342"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0296"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1165265"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2015.0290"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1209728"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2011.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/0929866053406011"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"An overview of antifungal peptides derived from insect","author":"Faruck MO","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","article-title":"Sequence diversity and evolution of antimicrobial peptides in invertebrates","author":"Tassanakajon A","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dev. 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