{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T15:36:26Z","timestamp":1791387386810,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1832","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626048000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/-\/media\/journals\/author\/Licence-to-Publish-20062019-final.pdf"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626048000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626048000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Genetic degeneration is an extraordinary feature of sex chromosomes, with the loss of functions of Y-linked genes in species with XY systems, and W-linked genes in ZW systems, eventually affecting almost all genes. Although degeneration is familiar to most biologists, important aspects are not yet well understood, including how quickly a Y or W chromosome can become completely degenerated. I review the current understanding of the time-course of degeneration. Degeneration starts after crossing over between the sex chromosome pair stops, and theoretical models predict an initially fast degeneration rate and a later much slower one. It has become possible to estimate the two quantities that the models suggest are the most important in determining degeneration rates\u2014the size of the sex-linked region, and the time when recombination became suppressed (which can be estimated using Y\u2013X or W\u2013Z sequence divergence). However, quantifying degeneration is still difficult. I review evidence on gene losses (based on coverage analysis) or loss of function (by classifying coding sequences into functional alleles and pseudogenes). I also review evidence about whether small genome regions degenerate, or only large ones, whether selective constraints on the genes in a sex-linked region also strongly affect degeneration rates, and about how long it takes before all (or almost all) genes are lost.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0093","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T03:05:53Z","timestamp":1626059153000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["The timing of genetic degeneration of sex chromosomes"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"376","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3939-9122","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Deborah","family":"Charlesworth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh ,"},{"name":"West Mains Road, EH9 3LF, UK ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010320210891800_RSTB20200093C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.107.084012","article-title":"The temporal dynamics of processes underlying Y chromosome degeneration","volume":"179","author":"Bachtrog","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"2026010320210891800_RSTB20200093C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst035","article-title":"Progressive recombination suppression and differentiation in recently evolved neo-sex chromosomes","volume":"30","author":"Natri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. 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