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Based on work with traditional model species, theory suggests that unequal gene copy numbers lead to the evolution of mechanisms to counter this imbalance. Dosage compensation, or at least achieving dosage balance in expression of sex-linked genes between sexes, has largely been documented in lineages with male heterogamety (XX\/XY sex determination), while ZZ\/ZW systems are assumed to be usually associated with the lack of chromosome-wide gene dose regulatory mechanisms. Here, we document that although the pygopodid geckos evolved male heterogamety with a degenerated Y chromosome 32\u201372 Ma, one species in particular, Burton's legless lizard (Lialis burtonis), does not possess dosage balance in the expression of genes in its X-specific region. We summarize studies on gene dose regulatory mechanisms in animals and conclude that there is in them no significant dichotomy between male and female heterogamety. We speculate that gene dose regulatory mechanisms are likely to be related to the general mechanisms of sex determination instead of type of heterogamety.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part II)\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,25]],"date-time":"2021-07-25T19:05:32Z","timestamp":1627239932000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Do male and female heterogamety really differ in expression regulation? Lack of global dosage balance in pygopodid geckos"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"376","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8429-5680","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michail","family":"Rovatsos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology 1 , ,"},{"name":"Charles University 1 , ,"},{"name":"Prague, CZ 12844, Czech Republic 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tony","family":"Gamble","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences 2 , ,"},{"name":"Marquette University 2 , ,"},{"name":"Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA 2 , ,"},{"name":"Milwaukee Public Museum 3 ,"},{"name":"800 W. Wells Street, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA 3 ,"},{"name":"Bell Museum of Natural History 4 , ,"},{"name":"University of Minnesota 4 , ,"},{"name":"Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA 4 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart V.","family":"Nielsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences 2 , ,"},{"name":"Marquette University 2 , ,"},{"name":"Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA 2 , ,"},{"name":"Florida Museum of Natural History 5 , ,"},{"name":"University of Florida 5 , ,"},{"name":"Gainesville, FL 32611, USA 5 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2428-0361","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Arthur","family":"Georges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Ecology 6 , ,"},{"name":"University of Canberra 6 , ,"},{"name":"Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2617, Australia 6 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tariq","family":"Ezaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Ecology 6 , ,"},{"name":"University of Canberra 6 , ,"},{"name":"Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2617, Australia 6 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3515-729X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Luk\u00e1\u0161","family":"Kratochv\u00edl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology 1 , ,"},{"name":"Charles University 1 , ,"},{"name":"Prague, CZ 12844, Czech Republic 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010320212570400_RSTB20200102C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199657148.001.0001","volume-title":"The evolution of sex determination","author":"Beukeboom","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026010320212570400_RSTB20200102C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tig.2005.02.010","article-title":"Dosage balance in gene regulation: biological implications","volume":"21","author":"Birchler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Genet."},{"key":"2026010320212570400_RSTB20200102C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-014-0478-5","article-title":"Facts and artifacts in studies of gene expression in aneuploids and sex chromosomes","volume":"123","author":"Birchler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"2026010320212570400_RSTB20200102C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gde.2007.02.002","article-title":"Dosage compensation goes global","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. 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