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These diverse impairments are called aphasia, and this paper proposes that the recovery of a non-fluent aphasia syndrome following stroke could provide insights into the course of the pre-history of human language evolution. The observable symptoms emerge during recovery, crucially enabled by (dis)inhibition in parallel with a range of impairments in action processing (apraxias), including apraxia of speech. They are underpinned by changes in cortical and subcortical status following brain damage. It is proposed that the observed recovery mimics ontogenic and phylogenic processes in human speech and language. The arguments put forward provide insights tending to support the motor-gestural model of speech and language evolution.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Reconstructing prehistoric languages\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,22]],"date-time":"2021-03-22T04:08:45Z","timestamp":1616386125000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["The prehistory of speech and language is revealed in brain damage"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"376","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6149-7688","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Chris","family":"Code","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4GQ, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010105010426100_RSTB20200191C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1075\/is.6.2.08cod","article-title":"First in, last out","volume":"6","author":"Code","year":"2005","journal-title":"Interaction Stud."},{"key":"2026010105010426100_RSTB20200191C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2009.12.007","article-title":"Nonfluent aphasia and the evolution of proto-language","volume":"24","author":"Code","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. 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