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Here, we take the opportunity of the recent availability of computational models that allow the simulation of three specifically vocal emotional behaviours: smiling, vocal tremor and vocal roughness. When applied to musical material, we find that these three acoustic manipulations trigger emotional perceptions that are remarkably similar to those observed on speech and scream sounds, and identical across musician and non-musician listeners. Strikingly, this not only applied to singing voice with and without musical background, but also to purely instrumental material.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Voice modulation: from origin and mechanism to social impact (Part I)\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0396","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T03:27:07Z","timestamp":1635737227000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Even violins can cry: specifically vocal emotional behaviours also drive the perception of emotions in non-vocal music"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"376","author":[{"given":"D.","family":"Bedoya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology of Music and Sound 1 ,"},{"name":"IRCAM\/CNRS\/Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, Paris, France 1 ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Arias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology of Music and Sound 1 ,"},{"name":"IRCAM\/CNRS\/Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, Paris, France 1 ,"},{"name":"Department of Cognitive Science 2 , ,"},{"name":"Lund University 2 , ,"},{"name":"Lund, Sweden 2 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L.","family":"Rachman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical Sciences 3 , ,"},{"name":"University of Groningen 3 , ,"},{"name":"Groningen, The Netherlands 3 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Liuni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alta Voce SAS 4 ,"},{"name":"Houilles, France 4 ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Canonne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology of Music and Sound 1 ,"},{"name":"IRCAM\/CNRS\/Sorbonne Universit\u00e9, Paris, France 1 ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4342-9408","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"L.","family":"Goupil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BabyDevLab 5 , ,"},{"name":"University of East London 5 , ,"},{"name":"London, UK 5 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4477-4812","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"J.-J.","family":"Aucouturier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FEMTO-ST Institute, Universit\u00e9 de Bourgogne Franche-Comt\u00e9\/CNRS 6 ,"},{"name":"Besan\u00e7on, France 6 ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C1","volume-title":"Sound sentiment: an essay on the musical emotions","author":"Kivy","year":"1989"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X08005293","article-title":"Emotional responses to music: the need to consider underlying mechanisms","volume":"31","author":"Juslin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C3","volume-title":"Music, language, and the brain","author":"Patel","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitch\n              WT\n            \n          . 2013Musical protolanguage: Darwin\u2019s theory of language evolution revisited. In Birdsong, speech, and language: exploring the evolution of mind and brain (eds JJ Bolhuis, M Everaert), pp. 489\u2013503. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9322.003.0032"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.5.770","article-title":"Communication of emotions in vocal expression and music performance: different channels, same code?","volume":"129","author":"Juslin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1525\/mp.2006.23.4.319","article-title":"A comparison of acoustic cues in music and speech for three dimensions of affect","volume":"23","author":"Ilie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Music Percept."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9852","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0703140104","article-title":"Musical intervals in speech","volume":"104","author":"Ross","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2012.732559","article-title":"Psychoacoustic cues to emotion in speech prosody and music","volume":"27","author":"Coutinho","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19 027","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1210344109","article-title":"Reduced sensitivity to emotional prosody in congenital amusia rekindles the musical protolanguage hypothesis","volume":"109","author":"Thompson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024521","article-title":"Speaking to the trained ear: musical expertise enhances the recognition of emotions in speech prosody","volume":"11","author":"Lima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1525\/mp.2017.35.1.3","article-title":"Outline of music semantics","volume":"35","author":"Schlenker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Music Percept."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326969ECO1302_2","article-title":"An adaptive bias in the perception of looming auditory motion","volume":"13","author":"Neuhoff","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecol. 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Int."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-1095-7","article-title":"Soundgen: an open-source tool for synthesizing nonverbal vocalizations","volume":"51","author":"Anikin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073920934544","article-title":"Beyond correlation: acoustic transformation methods for the experimental study of emotional voice and speech","volume":"13","author":"Arias","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1109\/TAFFC.2018.2811465","article-title":"Realistic transformation of facial and vocal smiles in real-time audiovisual streams","volume":"11","author":"Arias","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Affect. 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Biol."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390.E21-390.E29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvoice.2012.12.010","article-title":"Vocal indices of stress: a review","volume":"27","author":"Giddens","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Voice"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C28","unstructured":"Moshona\n              CC\n            \n          . 2018On the psychoacoustics of vocal tremor: identifying severity predictor variables, Master\u2019s thesis, Institut f\u00fcr Sprache und Kommunikation, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1506552113","article-title":"Covert digital manipulation of vocal emotion alter speakers\u2019 emotional states in a congruent direction","volume":"113","author":"Aucouturier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.2001.1912","article-title":"Calls out of chaos: the adaptive significance of nonlinear phenomena in mammalian vocal production","volume":"63","author":"Fitch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.06.043","article-title":"Human screams occupy a privileged niche in the communication soundscape","volume":"25","author":"Arnal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. 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Gender Cult."},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C49","volume-title":"Theory and practice in late nineteenth-century violin performance: an examination of style in performance, 1850\u20131900","author":"Milsom","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C50","volume-title":"The changing sound of music: approaches to studying recorded musical performances","author":"Leech-Wilkinson","year":"2009"},{"key":"2026010105320140800_RSTB20200396C51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5926","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1800666115","article-title":"Acoustic evolution of old Italian violins from Amati to Stradivari","volume":"115","author":"Tai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 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