{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T10:18:49Z","timestamp":1783592329974,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"The Royal Society","issue":"1852","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1240,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1240,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1240,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]],"date-time":"2022-04-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650240000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/royalsociety.org\/journals\/ethics-policies\/data-sharing-mining\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000051","name":"National Human Genome Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U01 HG008657"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 HG008657"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000051","name":"National Human Genome Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U01 HG011697"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 HG011697"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000051","name":"National Human Genome Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U01 HG008657"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 HG008657"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000051","name":"National Human Genome Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U01 HG011697"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 HG011697"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000051","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["royalsocietypublishing.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\u2018The Apportionment of Human Diversity\u2019 stands as a noteworthy intervention, both for the field of human population genetics as well as in the annals of public communication of science. Despite the widespread uptake of Lewontin's conclusion that racial classification is of \u2018virtually no genetic or taxonomic significance\u2019, the biomedical research community continues to grapple with whether and how best to account for race in its work. Nowhere is this struggle more apparent than in the latest attempts to translate genetic associations with complex disease risk to clinical use in the form of polygenic risk scores, or PRS. In this perspective piece, we trace current challenges surrounding the appropriate development and clinical application of PRS in diverse patient cohorts to ongoing difficulties deciding which facets of population structure matter, and for what reasons, to human health. Despite numerous analytical innovations, there are reasons that emerge from Lewontin's work to remain sceptical that accounting for population structure in the context of polygenic risk estimation will allow us to more effectively identify and intervene on the significant health disparities which plague marginalized populations around the world.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This article is part of the theme issue \u2018Celebrating 50 years since Lewontin's apportionment of human diversity\u2019.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]],"date-time":"2022-04-18T03:05:33Z","timestamp":1650251133000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Polygenic risk, population structure and ongoing difficulties with race in human genetics"],"prefix":"10.1098","volume":"377","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8628-5323","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan Michael","family":"Kaplan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Philosophy Program 1 , ,"},{"name":"Oregon State University 1 , ,"},{"name":"Corvallis, OR 97331, USA 1 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0938-6048","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stephanie M.","family":"Fullerton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioethics and Humanities 2 , ,"},{"name":"University of Washington School of Medicine 2 , ,"},{"name":"Seattle, WA 98195, USA 2 , ,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"175","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-9063-3_14","article-title":"The apportionment of human diversity","volume-title":"Evolutionary biology","author":"Lewontin","year":"1972"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200417","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0417","article-title":"Diversity and its causes: Lewontin on racism, biological determinism, and the adaptationist programme","volume":"377","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200406","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0406","article-title":"The background and legacy of Lewontin's apportionment of diversity","volume":"377","author":"Novembre","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15393","article-title":"A global reference for human genetic variation","volume":"526","author":"The 1000 Genomes Project Consortium","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1038\/nature19057","article-title":"Analysis of protein-coding genetic variation in 60 706 humans","volume":"536","author":"Lek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03205-y","article-title":"Sequencing of 53 831 diverse genomes from the NHLBI TOPMed program","volume":"590","author":"Taliun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9248.2007.00710.x","article-title":"Race in the ontology of international order","volume":"56","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Polit. Stud."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C8","volume-title":"\u2018Race\u2019 is a four-letter word: the genesis of the concept","author":"Brace","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2011.300643","article-title":"The lived experience of race and its health consequences","volume":"102","author":"Smedley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C10","volume-title":"Superior: the return of race science","author":"Saini","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C11","volume-title":"Biology as ideology: the doctrine of DNA","author":"Lewontin","year":"1992","edition":"1st edn"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C12","volume-title":"The genetic basis of evolutionary change","author":"Lewontin","year":"1974"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1080\/03014460701497236","article-title":"Race: the extinction of a paradigm","volume":"34","author":"Biondi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Hum. Biol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.10315","article-title":"Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy","volume":"25","author":"Edwards","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bioessays"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007","article-title":"Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race, and disease","volume":"3","author":"Risch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C16","volume-title":"Unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care","author":"Institute of Medicine","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090852","article-title":"U.S. disparities in health: descriptions, causes, and mechanisms","volume":"29","author":"Adler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.26443","article-title":"Racial and ethnic health disparities related to COVID-19","volume":"325","author":"Lopez","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/gm465","article-title":"Genome science and health disparities: a growing success story?","volume":"5","author":"Rotimi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2015.1476","article-title":"Using genetic technologies to reduce, rather than widen, health disparities","volume":"35","author":"Smith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Aff. Proj. Hope."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.101","article-title":"Pharmacogenomics: unlocking the human genome for better drug therapy","volume":"41","author":"Mcleod","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14 068","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0605832103","article-title":"Admixture mapping identifies 8q24 as a prostate cancer risk locus in African-American men","volume":"103","author":"Freedman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1193032","article-title":"Association of trypanolytic ApoL1 variants with kidney disease in African Americans","volume":"329","author":"Genovese","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-010-0861-0","article-title":"Missense mutations in the APOL1 gene are highly associated with end stage kidney disease risk previously attributed to the MYH9 gene","volume":"128","author":"Tzur","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.9260","article-title":"Racial bias in health care and health: challenges and opportunities","volume":"314","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1111\/ajes.12230","article-title":"Racial disparities in health status and access to healthcare: the continuation of inequality in the United States due to structural racism: continuing racial health disparities","volume":"77","author":"Yearby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Econ. Sociol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00258-1","article-title":"Racism: a fundamental driver of racial disparities in health-care quality","volume":"7","author":"Mateo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primer."},{"issue":"Suppl. 1","key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S15","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146510383838","article-title":"Understanding racial-ethnic disparities in health: sociological contributions","volume":"51","author":"Williams","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.20983","article-title":"How race becomes biology: embodiment of social inequality","volume":"139","author":"Gravlee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Anthropol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1831","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.3096","article-title":"Genomics, health disparities, and missed opportunities for the nation's research agenda","volume":"317","author":"West","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3931","article-title":"Classification of common human diseases derived from shared genetic and environmental determinants","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9525(01)02410-6","article-title":"On the allelic spectrum of human disease","volume":"17","author":"Reich","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1126\/science.278.5343.1580","article-title":"Variations on a theme: cataloging human DNA sequence variation","volume":"278","author":"Collins","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2006-9S340","article-title":"On the discovery of the genetic association of apolipoprotein E genotypes and common late-onset Alzheimer disease","volume":"9","author":"Roses","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D1005","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky1120","article-title":"The NHGRI-EBI GWAS Catalog of published genome-wide association studies, targeted arrays and summary statistics","volume":"47","author":"Buniello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08494","article-title":"Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases","volume":"461","author":"Manolio","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2809","article-title":"Missing heritability and strategies for finding the underlying causes of complex disease","volume":"11","author":"Eichler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1003348","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1003348","article-title":"Power and predictive accuracy of polygenic risk scores","volume":"9","author":"Dudbridge","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2759","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-020-0353-1","article-title":"Tutorial: a guide to performing polygenic risk score analyses","volume":"15","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-018-0183-z","article-title":"Genome-wide polygenic scores for common diseases identify individuals with risk equivalent to monogenic mutations","volume":"50","author":"Khera","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R133","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddz187","article-title":"Towards clinical utility of polygenic risk scores","volume":"28","author":"Lambert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-020-00742-5","article-title":"Polygenic risk scores: from research tools to clinical instruments","volume":"12","author":"Lewis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-021-00829-7","article-title":"Polygenic risk scores in the clinic: new perspectives needed on familiar ethical issues","volume":"13","author":"Lewis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e43657","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.43657","article-title":"An atlas of polygenic risk score associations to highlight putative causal relationships across the human phenome","volume":"8","author":"Richardson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13190","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69927-7","article-title":"Sibling validation of polygenic risk scores and complex trait prediction","volume":"10","author":"Lello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6084","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19600-4","article-title":"Pan-cancer analysis demonstrates that integrating polygenic risk scores with modifiable risk factors improves risk prediction","volume":"11","author":"Kachuri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5819","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13848-1","article-title":"Genomic risk score offers predictive performance comparable to clinical risk factors for ischaemic stroke","volume":"10","author":"Abraham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.21782","article-title":"Predictive accuracy of a polygenic risk score compared with a clinical risk score for incident coronary heart disease","volume":"323","author":"Mosley","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-021-09143-2","article-title":"Polygenic risk prediction models for colorectal cancer: a systematic review","volume":"22","author":"Sassano","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2813","article-title":"New approaches to population stratification in genome-wide association studies","volume":"11","author":"Price","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39702","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.39702","article-title":"Polygenic adaptation on height is overestimated due to uncorrected stratification in genome-wide association studies","volume":"8","author":"Sohail","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39725","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.39725","article-title":"Reduced signal for polygenic adaptation of height in UK biobank","volume":"8","author":"Berg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45380","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.45380","article-title":"Why structure matters","volume":"8","author":"Barton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C54","author":"Coop","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C55","article-title":"Liverpool is officially the tea capital of the UK","volume-title":"Tea perspective","author":"Spiegel","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C56","article-title":"Map: the countries that drink the most tea","volume-title":"The Atlantic","author":"Ferdman","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2019.06.006","article-title":"Comparing within- and between-family polygenic score prediction","volume":"105","author":"Selzam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C58","article-title":"Within-sibship GWAS improve estimates of direct genetic effects","author":"Howe","year":"2021","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2017.03.004","article-title":"Human demographic history impacts genetic risk prediction across diverse populations","volume":"100","author":"Martin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-018-0610-x","article-title":"Polygenic risk scores: a biased prediction?","volume":"10","author":"De La Vega","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3328","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11112-0","article-title":"Analysis of polygenic risk score usage and performance in diverse human populations","volume":"10","author":"Duncan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-019-0379-x","article-title":"Clinical use of current polygenic risk scores may exacerbate health disparities","volume":"51","author":"Martin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.12.27.20248738","article-title":"Improving polygenic prediction in ancestrally diverse populations","volume-title":"medRxiv","author":"Ruan","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3865","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17719-y","article-title":"Theoretical and empirical quantification of the accuracy of polygenic scores in ancestry divergent populations","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1093\/emph\/eoy036","article-title":"Interpreting polygenic scores, polygenic adaptation, and human phenotypic differences","volume":"2019","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Evol. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2021.07.003","article-title":"The omnigenic model and polygenic prediction of complex traits","volume":"108","author":"Mathieson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200416","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0416","article-title":"Population differentiation of polygenic score predictions under stabilizing selection","volume":"377","author":"Yair","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyl062","article-title":"The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes","volume":"35","author":"Lewontin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-020-00740-8","article-title":"Improving the trans-ancestry portability of polygenic risk scores by prioritizing variants in predicted cell-type-specific regulatory elements","volume":"52","author":"Amariuta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xhgg.2020.100017","article-title":"Inclusion of variants discovered from diverse populations improves polygenic risk score transferability","volume":"2","author":"Cavazos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Genet. Genom. Adv."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/538161a","article-title":"Genomics is failing on diversity","volume":"538","author":"Popejoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-019-02049-x","article-title":"Ancestry-specific polygenic scores and SNP heritability of 25(OH)D in African- and European-ancestry populations","volume":"138","author":"Hatchell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673167","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.673167","article-title":"Admixed populations improve power for variant discovery and portability in genome-wide association studies","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1002\/evan.20079","article-title":"Racing around, getting nowhere","volume":"14","author":"Weiss","year":"2005","journal-title":"Evol. Anthropol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2068","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.034","article-title":"Toward a fine-scale population health monitoring system","volume":"184","author":"Belbin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61690-6","article-title":"Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health","volume":"372","author":"Marmot","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0160217","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0160217","article-title":"Leveraging the social determinants of health: what works?","volume":"11","author":"Taylor","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/155.2.945","article-title":"Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data","volume":"155","author":"Pritchard","year":"2000","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.094052.109","article-title":"Fast model-based estimation of ancestry in unrelated individuals","volume":"19","author":"Alexander","year":"2009","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.2285","article-title":"A model-based approach for analysis of spatial structure in genetic data","volume":"44","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/30.3.427","article-title":"Sick individuals and sick populations","volume":"30","author":"Rose","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01549-6","article-title":"Responsible use of polygenic risk scores in the clinic: potential benefits, risks and gaps","volume":"27","author":"Adeyemo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"2026010105440130000_RSTB20200427C83","first-page":"241","article-title":"On the absence of biology in philosophical considerations of race","volume-title":"Race and epistemologies of ignorance","author":"Fullerton","year":"2007"}],"container-title":["Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427\/1277570\/rstb.2020.0427.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427\/1277570\/rstb.2020.0427.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T10:44:16Z","timestamp":1767264256000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/royalsocietypublishing.org\/rstb\/article\/377\/1852\/20200427\/108893\/Polygenic-risk-population-structure-and-ongoing"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1852","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,6]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2020.0427","relation":{},"ISSN":["0962-8436","1471-2970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0962-8436","type":"print"},{"value":"1471-2970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2021-08-24","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-01-22","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-18","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"20200427"}}